THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


n ,  A,. 


Of 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


SPECIAL   METHOD   IN 
GEOGRAPHY 


FROM  THE  THIRD   THROUGH 
THE  EIGHTH  GRADE 


BY 
CHARLES  A.   McMURRY,   PH.D. 


NEW  EDITION 
REVISED  AND   ENLARGED 


gorfc 
THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1917 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1903, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up,  clectrotyped,  and  published  October,  1903.     Reprinted 
February,  August,  1904  ;  February,  May,  September,  1905  ;  May, 
1908  ;  January,  1909  ;  June,  1910  ;  July,  1911 ;  September,  1912; 
June,  December,  1913;  May,  1915  ;  May,  1916;  June,  1917. 


Education 
Library 


PREFACE 

THE  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  outline  a  complete 
course  of  study  in  geography  from  the  third  through 
the  eighth  grade.  The  character  and  arrangement 
of  the  materials  selected  for  each  grade  are  discussed 
at  length  and  the  method  of  treating  topics  illustrated. 

The  characteristic  points  to  be  noted  are  (i),  the 
gradual  movement  from  the  home  outward ;  (2),  the 
strong  concentration  of  study,  first  upon  North 
America  and  second  upon  Europe  ;  and  (3),  the  selec- 
tion of  types  as  centres  for  the  organization  of 
materials. 

In  laying  out  the  course  of  study  in  Chapter  XI, 
the  points  of  correlation  between  geography  and 
other  studies  are  marked  out,  and  the  list  of  books  at 
the  close  is  designed  as  a  direct  help  to  teachers  in 
realizing  this  course  of  study. 

This  is  one  of  a  series  of  Special  Methods,  all 
aiming  at  the  same  general  purpose.  The  others 
are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  Special  Method  in  Primary  Reading  and 
Oral  Work  with  Stories. 

2.  The  Special  Method  in  the  Reading  of  Com- 
plete English  Classics,  from  fourth  to  eighth  grade. 


Vi  PREFACE 

3.  The  Special  Method  in  History. 

4.  The  Special  Method  in  Natural  Science. 
These  Special  Methods  are  designed  to  work  out 

in  the  particular  detail  of  each  study  the  principles 
discussed  in  the  two  volumes  of  General  Method, 
based  on  the  Principles  of  Herbart,  and  the  Method 
of  the  Recitation. 

A  course  of  study  in  two  volumes  is  in  preparation 
by  the  author  in  which  the  work  outlined  in  the 
Special  Methods  and  the  courses  in  the  remaining 
studies  are  combined  into  one  comprehensive  plan  for 
the  whole  common  school. 

In  order  to  carry  such  a  plan  into  full  execution  it 
is  necessary  to  work  out  special  books  of  material 
which  furnish  the  full  treatment  of  important  topics 
in  such  studies  as  geography,  history,  and  science.  A 
series  of  such  supplementary  books  is  in  preparation, 
and  is  already  partly  worked  out 


CONTENTS 

PACK 

THESES ix 

I.  THE  AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOG- 

RAPHY   i 

II.  SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL    .      14 

III.  HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS    ....      21 

IV.  GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH    AND    SIXTH   GRADES  — 

TYPE  STUDIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  —  ILLUS- 
TRATIONS          50 

V.    EUROPE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE         ....      76 
VI.    EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY         ....      90 

VII.  METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY      .       .       .    101 

VIII.  CORRELATION    OF    GEOGRAPHY    WITH     OTHER 

STUDIES .117 

IX.    INCIDENTAL  TEACHING 128 

X.      TYPES  RUNNING   THROUGH  THE  GRADES         .  .139 

XI.    COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED    .        .        .165 

XII.    LIST  OF  BOOKS  CAREFULLY  ARRANGED  ACCORD- 
ING TO  GRADES 199 


vii 


THESES 

THE  chief  ideas  discussed  and  illustrated  in  this 
book  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows :  — 

1.  Geography  is  a  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home 
of  man.     Each  important  subject  treated  should  con- 
tain a  central  idea  illustrating  this  point  of  contact 
between  man  and  the  physical  world. 

2.  Geography    deals    with    man    in   his   present 
physical,  social,  and  industrial  environment.    It  occu- 
pies the  broad  practical  ground  of  everyday  life  as 
it  is. 

3.  Topics  in  pure  science  such  as  biology,  physi- 
ography, meteorology,  and  in  history  are  excluded 
from  geography  proper.     Such  topics,  so  far  as  they 
are  germane  to  the  common  school  work,  belong  to 
the  course  of  study  in  natural  science  or  history. 

4.  The  general  movement  in  geography  is  from 
the  home  neighborhood  outward  to  the  home  state, 
the  United  States,  North  America,  Europe,  Africa, 
Asia,  Australia,  and  South  America. 

5.  The  course  of  study   should  be   so  arranged 
that  each  succeeding  year  brings  on  a  new  set  of 
important  topics,  not  merely  a  rehash  of  old  ones. 

ix 


X  THESES 

6.  The  topics  fully  treated  in  the  earlier  grades 
(3,  4,  and  5)  should  be  simple  and  crude,  like  bulky 
material  things,  while  the  later  subjects  grow  more 
refined  and  complicated. 

7.  A  few  important  topics  for  each  grade  should 
be  carefully  selected  and  elaborately  treated. 

8.  These  central  topics  in  each  grade  should  be 
well-chosen   types   which   form   the  basis   for   com- 
parison,   classification,    and    a    constantly    growing 
organization  of  geographical  knowledge. 

9.  There  are  four  chief  stages  in  this  course  in 
geography:     (i)  Home  geography.     (2)  Studies  on 
North  America.     (3)  Studies  on  Europe.     (4)  The 
movement  from  Europe  outward  to  the  rest  of  the 
world. 

10.  The  skilful  oral  treatment  of  geography  topics 
in  intermediate  grades  is  essential  to  good  instruc- 
tion. 

n.  In  the  elaborate  treatment  of  any  type  study, 
its  causal  and  class  relations  to  other  things  in  geog- 
raphy, natural  science,  and  history,  in  short,  to  its 
whole  environment,  should  be  carefully  worked  out.. 

12.  The  constant  review  and  elaboration  of  pre- 
vious lessons  should  be  brought  about  by  a  detailed 
comparison  of  each  new  topic  with   similar  topics 
studied  in  previous  work. 

13.  Many  important  geographical  ideas  require  a 
continuous  treatment  and  enlargement  through  the 
successive  years  of  the  school  course. 


THESES  Xi 

14.  Such  series  of  similar  and  connected  topics, 
extending  throughout  the  course  of  instruction,  will 
gradually  build   up   and   organize   the   chief  repre- 
sentative phases  of  geographical  knowledge. 

15.  Nearly  all  the  facts  of  formal  geography,  such 
as  position,  direction,  names  and  location  of  places, 
countries,  etc.,  can  best  be  learned  incidentally,  as 
essential  details  of  large  and  interesting  topics. 

16.  Maps,   pictures,  diagrams,  models,  materials, 
products,  excursions,  and  manual  constructions  should 
be  freely  used  to  give  clearness  and  reality  to  geo- 
graphical studies. 

17.  Children  should  be  carefully  trained  in  the  use 
of  text-books,  maps,  statistical  tables,  geographical 
readers,  books  of  travel,  and  other  books  of  reference. 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

WHILE  it  is  admitted  that  geography  is  the  study 
of  the  earth  as  related  to  man,  it  is  not  customary  to 
hold  strictly  to  this  definition  and  to  select  for  topics 
only  those  which  emphasize  this  relationship. 

In  fact  the  relationship  to  man  may  be  wholly 
overlooked,  and  topics  are  often  chosen  and  treated 
at  first,  without  any  direct  reference  to  man,  as 
forests,  mountains,  oceans,  islands,  the  wild  animals 
or  plants  of  a  region,  etc.  Of  course  these  topics 
are  found  later  to  have  a  relation  to  man,  but  this 
relationship  is  not  the  central  idea  and  basis  of  the 
treatment.  Other  topics,  such  as  a  canal,  a  lumber 
camp,  a  cattle  ranch,  a  seaside  resort,  a  coffee  planta- 
tion, emphasize  the  relationship  to  man  and  make  it 
fundamental. 

That  geography  is  focussed  upon  the  interactions 
between  man  and  the  earth  is  now  affirmed  by  the 
best  authorities. 

Professor  W.  M.  Davis  says :  "  It  is  especially  the 
factor  of  relationship  of  earth  and  inhabitants  that 
characterizes  geography  as  a  subject  apart  from  other 


2  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

sciences,  and  that  gives  an  essential  unity  of  content 
and  discipline  to  all  its  varied  parts."1 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler  says :  "  The  conception  of 
geography  that  is  here  presented  seems  to  me  to  be 
the  only  one  which  can  support  its  claim  to  a  large 
share  of  the  time  and  thought  of  the  elementary 
school ;  that  is,  the  conception  of  it  as  a  subject 
which  relates  the  sciences  of  nature  and  of  man. 
As  a  bridge  over  which  to  pass  backward  and  forward 
from  the  study  of  man's  habitat  to  his  activities  and 
his  limitations,  and  back  again,  geography  is  a  unique 
and  indispensable  element  of  an  elementary  education. 
So  treated  it  is  excelled  in  suggestiveness  by  none  of 
its  companion  studies."  2 

The  report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  says : 
"After  arithmetic,  which  treats  of  the  abstract  or 
general  conditions  of  material  existence,  comes  geog- 
raphy, with  a  practical  study  of  man's  material  habitat 
and  its  relations  to  him.  It  is  not  a  simple  science 
by  itself,  like  botany  or  geology  or  astronomy,  but  a 
collection  of  sciences  levied  upon  to  describe  the 
earth  as  the  dwelling-place  of  man  and  to  explain 
something  of  its  more  prominent  features." 

It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  citations  in  favor  of 
this  accepted  view  of  the  scope  of  geography. 

The  difficulty,  however,  lies  not  in  securing  a  good 
and  generally  accepted  definition  of  the  meaning  and 

1 "  Progress  of  Geography  in  the  Schools." 
*  "The  New  Basis  of  Geography,"  by  Redway. 


AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY     3 

scope  of  geography,  but  in  working  out  a  coherent 
and  progressive  course  of  study  based  on  this  idea. 

The  point  of  view  from  which  any  topic  is  treated 
in  geography  is  different  from  that  of  any  one  of  the 
sciences  in  teaching  the  same  facts.  The  outcome  of 
man's  contact  with  nature  is  the  centre  of  every 
strictly  geographic  topic.  Geographers  and  book- 
makers are  constantly  falling  away  from  this  idea  and 
dropping  back  into  the  separate  sciences,  —  geology, 
physiography,  meteorology,  and  biology.  It  is  as  if 
they  were  satisfied  with  a  mere  definition  of  geog- 
raphy, but  in  order  to  get  some  content  worth  discuss- 
ing they  must  drop  back  into  one  of  the  natural 
sciences.  The  main  fortress  of  geography  is  left 
undefended  while  a  number  of  surrounding  ramparts 
thrown  up  by  the  separate  sciences  are  well  manned. 

In  order  to  get  the  main  contention  clearly  before 
us,  we  are  willing  to  abide  by  the  following  somewhat 
drastic  statement:  Topics  in  pure  science,  such  as 
meteorology,  physiography,  and  in  history,  are  ex- 
cluded as  such  from  geography  proper.  Geogra- 
phy will  use  these  same  facts,  but  it  will  control  them 
and  focus  them  upon  its  own  centres  of  thought 
Such  science  topics,  so  far  as  they  are  germane  to  the 
common  school  work,  belong  to  the  course  of  study 
in  natural  science  and  history,  not  to  geography. 

W.  M.  Davis  says  ("First  Year  Book"):  "Geogra- 
phy has  to-day  entered  well  upon  its  third  stage 
of  progress.  The  'causal  notion'  is  generally  ad- 


4  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

mitted  to  be  essential  in  the  study  of  the  relation 
of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants.  Thus  understood, 
geography  involves  the  knowledge  of  two  great 
classes  of  facts :  first,  all  those  facts  of  inorganic 
environment  which  enter  into  relationship  with  the 
earth's  inhabitants;  second,  all  those  responses  by 
which  the  inhabitants,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest, 
have  adjusted  themselves  to  their  environment.  The 
first  of  these  classes  has  long  been  studied  as  physical 
geography,  although  the  name  has  long  been  used  as 
a  cover  for  many  irrelevant  topics.  In  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  compress  the  name  into 
the  single  word,  '  physiography.' 

"  The  second  of  the  two  classes  of  facts  has  not  yet 
reached  the  point  of  being  named,  but  perhaps  it  may 
come  to  be  called  ontography. 

"  Neither  physiography  nor  ontography  alone  is 
geography  proper,  for  it  involves  the  relation  in  which 
the  elements  of  its  two  components  stand  to  each  other. 
Each  of  the  components  must  be  well  developed  before 
geography  can  be  taken  up  as  a  mature  study." 

This  passage  gives  the  right  conception  of  geogra- 
phy, but  at  the  same  time  shows  how  difficult  it  is  to 
maintain  the  integrity  of  geography  in  the  face  of 
physiography  and  other  sciences. 

If  this  were  merely  a  matter  of  definitions  and  ver- 
bal distinctions,  it  could  be  ignored,  but  our  geogra- 
phies are  filled  up  to  a  considerable  extent  with  topics 
in  pure  science  taken  from  meteorology,  geology, 


AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY      5 

physiography,  and  biology  to  the  exclusion  of  a  proper 
treatment  of  purely  geographical  topics.  Even  this 
would  not  be  so  serious  if  the  science  topics  were 
appropriate  to  the  children  and  suitable  to  their  age 
and  understanding.  But  many  of  the  mathematical, 
geological,  and  physical  topics  in  the  geographies  are 
known  to  be  beyond  the  clear  comprehension  and 
interest  of  children. 

The  Committee  of  Fifteen  says  :  — 

"  The  child  commences  with  what  is  nearest  to  his 
interests,  and  proceeds  gradually  toward  what  is  to 
be  studied  for  its  own  sake.  It  is  therefore  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  the  first  phase  of  geography  pre- 
sented to  the  child  should  be  the  process  of  continent 
formation.  He  must  begin  with  the  natural  differ- 
ences of  climate  and  lands  and  waters  and  obstacles 
that  separate  peoples,  and  study  the  methods  by 
which  man  strives  to  equalize  or  overcome  these  dif- 
ferences by  industry  and  commerce,  to  unite  all  places 
and  all  people,  and  make  it  possible  for  each  to  share 
in  the  productions  of  all.  The  industrial  and  com- 
mercial idea  is  therefore  the  first  central  idea  in  the 
study  of  geography  in  the  elementary  schools.  It 
leads  directly  to  the  natural  elements  of  difference  in 
climate,  soil,  and  productions,  and  also  to  those  in 
race,  religion,  political  status,  and  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants,  with  a  view  to  explain  the  grounds  and 
reasons  for  this  counter-process  of  civilization  which 
struggles  to  overcome  the  differences.  Next  comes 


6  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  deeper  inquiry  into  the  process  of  continent  for- 
mation,  the  physical  struggle  between  the  process  of 
upheaving  or  upbuilding  of  continents  and  that  of  their 
obliteration  by  air  and  water ;  the  explanation  of  the 
mountains,  valleys,  the  plains,  the  islands,  volcanic 
action,  the  winds,  the  rain  distribution.  But  the 
study  of  cities,  their  location,  the  purposes  they  serve 
as  collecting,  manufacturing,  and  distributing  centres, 
leads  most  directly  to  the  immediate  purpose  of  geog- 
raphy in  the  elementary  school.  From  this  begin- 
ning, and  holding  to  it  as  a  permanent  interest,  the 
inquiry  into  causes  and  conditions  proceeds  concentri- 
cally to  the  sources  of  the  raw  materials,  the  methods 
of  their  production  and  the  climatic,  geologic,  and 
other  reasons  that  explain  their  location  and  growth." 

The  assumption  is  that  the  strictly  geographical 
topics,  dealing  with  man's  experience  in  contact  with 
nature,  are  more  tangible  and  interesting  to  children 
in  the  elementary  school  than  the  physiography  of 
the  earth.  Believing  this  to  be  true,  we  set  ourselves 
first  of  all  to  the  task  of  selecting  and  arranging  a 
more  strictly  geographical  series  of  topics  for  the  ele- 
mentary course  of  study,  omitting  largely  the  more 
distinctly  scientific  topics. 

On  the  other  side,  we  may  say  that  there  is  no  more 
interesting  and  instructive  study  in  primary  and  inter- 
mediate grades  than  nature  study  or  elementary 
science.  In  our  "  Special  Method  in  Natural  Science  " 
we  have  discussed  at  length  the  value  of  nature  study 


AIM  AND   GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY      7 

in  all  the  grades  of  the  common  schools.  A  full 
course  of  study  in  nature  topics  is  there  laid  out,  with 
illustrations. 

In  the  present  chapter  we  wish  to  draw  the  line 
definitely  between  geography  and  nature  study.  In 
the  two  primary  grades  our  course  of  nature  study  is 
given  mainly  to  an  observation  of  plants,  animals,  and 
the  general  physical  environment  of  children.  Many 
teachers  and  writers  do  not  discriminate  clearly  be- 
tween nature  study  and  geography  in  primary  and 
intermediate  grades.  Without  wishing  to  be  over- 
critical  or  pedantic  in  this  matter,  we  think  it  advis- 
able to  have  a  distinctly  marked  geographical  course 
from  the  beginning  of  the  third  grade  on.  The  main 
reason  for  this  is  that  geography  from  the  beginning 
deals  with  a  very  interesting  and  valuable  series  of 
topics  which  the  separate  sciences  do  not  attempt  to 
treat.  Geography  has  the  double  interest  which  at- 
taches to  natural  objects  and  human  beings.  It  deals 
with  people  in  the  midst  of  their  physical,  social,  indus- 
trial, and  political  surroundings.  Geography  studies 
should  be  intensely  practical  and  social  in  their  influ- 
ence, because  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  pur- 
suits men  are  producing  and  distributing  those  articles 
of  mutual  interchange  and  accommodation  by  which 
they  get  better  acquainted  and  learn  to  depend  upon 
one  another.  The  political  and  economic  topics  of 
geography  bring  children  as  close  as  possible  to  the 
actual  business  and  turmoil  of  the  strenuous  present 


8  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

It  brings  them  equally  in  contact  with  mountains, 
rivers,  mines,  forests,  deserts,  cities,  climates,  and 
products  of  the  diversified  earth.  One  reason  why 
physiography  and  the  other  physical  sciences  are 
not  adapted  to  elementary  instruction  is  that  they 
inevitably  deal  with  all  these  nature  topics  from  the 
standpoint  of  systematic  science,  while  geography  is 
willing  to  take  the  crude  materials  as  an  immediate 
and  necessary  background  for  social  units  of  study. 

Any  one  who  will  read  carefully  one  of  the  first- 
class  books  of  physical  geography  or  physiography 
like  that  of  Tarr  or  Davis,  and  will  ask  himself  how 
much  of  this  can  be  made  available  for  elementary 
instruction,  may  find  that  he  has  but  a  meagre  rem- 
nant of  the  whole.  On  the  other  hand,  geography 
properly  taught  from  the  third  grade  on  will  contain 
a  very  large  amount  of  crude  physiographic  material. 

Geography  is  the  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home 
of  man.  This  definition  gives  the  key  to  geographical 
study,  as  distinguished  from  other  studies  and  as  re- 
lated to  them.  The  study  of  the  earth  alone,  its  phe- 
nomena and  forces,  its  vegetation  and  animals,  its 
rocks  and  atmosphere,  is  natural  science  pure  and 
simple.  The  study  of  man  in  his  work  and  prog- 
ress, his  struggles  and  representative  deeds,  is  his- 
tory. The  study  of  the  earth  as  related  to  man 
is  geography.  Every  topic  in  geography  has  a 
double  footing  in  natural  science  and  history.  It 
has  two  faces,  —  one  toward  nature  and  one  toward 


AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY      9 

man.  This  double,  or  complex,  character,  is  the 
distinguishing  trait  of  a  strictly  geographical  topic. 
The  moment  a  topic  becomes  purely  scientific  or 
purely  historical  it  loses  its  geographical  character. 

Geography  is  the  connecting  bridge  between  two 
great  real  studies,  —  nature  and  man.  A  description 
of  the  Illinois  or  Hudson  river,  for  example,  is  the 
presentation  of  a  great  complex  object  in  nature 
as  related  to  the  industries,  travel,  homes,  and  cities 
of  men.  The  treatment  of  the  city  of  Duluth  as 
a  natural  trade  centre  includes  not  only  the  rail- 
roads and  shipping  that  centre  there  (man's  work) 
but  also  the  surface,  climate,  and  natural  resources 
of  the  Northwest,  and  the  series  of  lakes  and  rivers 
which  connect  this  productive  region  with  the  East- 
ern states  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  study  of 
the  White  Mountains  as  a  tourists'  resort  would  in- 
volve a  multitude  of  nature's  works  in  rocks,  gorges, 
and  brooks,  and  man's  work  in  villages,  roads, 
traditions,  mountain-engineering,  summit  house,  and 
other  products  of  his  brain  and  hand. 

I  shall  first  inquire  whether  there  are  any  impor- 
tant geographical  topics  which  should  be  treated  from 
a  strictly  geographical  standpoint,  and  not  from  the 
standpoint  of  any  other  study,  such  as  botany  or  his- 
tory. Many  books  and  teachers  do  not  discriminate 
closely  between  geographical  topics  and  those  which 
are  strictly  scientific  (geological,  zoological,  astronomi- 
cal, etc.).  A  topic  in  geography  proper  is  never  strictly 


10  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

identical  with  one  in  natural  science,  however  they  maj 
overlap.  In  fact,  it  never  centres  in  the  same  unit 
of  thought.  A  geographical  topic  is,  generally,  a 
geographical  unit,  which  involves  incidentally  a 
variety  of  facts  from  natural  science  and  history. 
Pikes  Peak  and  vicinity,  as  a  resort,  are  a  moun- 
tain neighborhood  with  a  variety  of  scenic  attrac- 
tions, all  centring  and  culminating  in  the  giant 
peak.  A  description  of  this  mountain  resort  in- 
volves such  topics  as  Manitou  and  its  mineral 
springs  as  a  health  resort,  Cheyenne  Canyon,  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  the  Cave  of  the  Winds,  the 
foot-trail  up  the  peak,  the  railroad  to  the  top,  the 
timber-line  and  rock-strewn  summit,  the  views  of 
the  distant  mountains  and  plains,  the  signal  station, 
—  in  short,  works  of  both  nature  and  marr's  inge- 
nuity. A  great  variety  of  scientific  and  historical 
facts  is  suggested  by  such  a  description  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  explanation  of  the  mineral  springs,  of 
air  pressure  at  the  base  and  summit,  of  granite 
boulders  and  their  origin,  of  the  formation  of 
canyons,  valleys,  etc.,  by  erosion,  of  vegetation  at 
different  levels,  of  the  exploration  of  the  peak,  of 
the  engineering  difficulties  of  road-building.  Any 
one  of  these  topics,  and  several  others,  might  sug- 
gest detailed  scientific  or  historical  treatment,  but 
the  geographical  standpoint  does  not  call  for  a 
detailed  study  of  any  of  them.  We  may  get  a 
clear,  definite,  and  interesting  account  of  Pikes  Peak 


AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY     II 

without  a  technical  treatment  of  any  of  these  topics. 
But  Pikes  Peak,  as  a  typical  mountain  resort  and 
centre,  is  important  enough  to  call  for  a  full  descrip- 
tive geographical  treatment.  It  will  never  receive 
this  treatment  in  any  one  or  in  all  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences, or  in  history.  The  standpoint  of  each  science 
is  different,  and  the  geographical  unit  is  never  reached. 
The  geographical  unit  and  its  treatment  would  nat- 
urally come  first  in  the  order  of  the  studies  because 
it  is  a  prominent,  easily  grasped  whole.  The  ade- 
quate treatment  of  the  suggested  science  topics,  as 
wholes,  will  naturally  fall  to  the  separate  sciences. 

The  topics  which  can  be  treated  from  a  strictly 
geographical  standpoint  are  large  complex  units,  each 
of  which  involves  a  variety  of  scientific  and  historical 
facts.  Their  unity  is  found  not  in  any  one  of  the  sci- 
ences but  in  the  geographical  type  which  this  object 
illustrates.  The  Hudson  River,  for  example,  the  full 
treatment  of  which  also  involves  a  multitude  of  scien- 
tific, historical,  commercial,  and  scenic  constituents, 
is  a  geographical  unit  which  typifies  in  its  main 
points  the  character  of  many  rivers.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  important  topics  in  this  subject  can  be 
made  very  instructive  and  interesting  without  any 
effort  to  explain  and  work  out  in  detail  and  sepa- 
rately the  scientific  problems  which  are  suggested  by 
the  detailed  treatment;  for  example  the  geologic 
formations  along  its  shores,  Hudson's  first  voyage  up 
the  river,  the  connection  with  Lake  Ontario  in  the 


12  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

glacial  period,  the  effect  of  stripping  away  the  for. 
ests,  the  native  plants  and  animals  of  the  Adirondack 
region.  These  latter  subjects  may  be  very  interesting 
for  science  or  history  lessons;  they  cannot  be  ade- 
quately treated  in  geography.  The  purpose  of  geog- 
raphy is  not  to  ignore  them  but  to  suggest  them,  to 
use  what  is  needed  of  them,  and  to  show  how  inti- 
mate is  the  relation  between  them  and  geography. 

To  further  illustrate  the  distinctiveness  and  impor- 
tance of  the  geographical  types  take  the  treatment  of 
the  coal  mine  as  a  geographical  topic.  We  have  an 
extremely  interesting  and  instructive  description  of 
the  sinking  of  the  shaft,  of  the  ventilation  of  the 
mine,  of  the  blasting  out  and  hoisting  of  coal,  the 
dangers  from  caving  in  and  from  explosions,  of 
the  transportation  by  river  and  railroad,  and  of  the 
uses  of  coal  in  commerce,  manufactures,  and  for  heat- 
ing purposes.  We  may  have  such  a  geographical 
treatment  of  the  coal  mine  as  this,  without  any  satis- 
factory discussion  of  the  strictly  scientific  questions 
which  are  sure  to  be  suggested  by  this  study ;  for 
example,  the  origin  of  coal  beds,  the  explosion  of 
gases,  the  steam  engine,  the  principle  of  the  safety 
lamp,  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  the  first  discovery  and 
use  of  coal,  etc.  We  may  well  afford  to  treat  these 
science  topics  in  parallel  lessons  in  natural  science, 
but  it  would  utterly  swamp  the  geography  lesson  to 
branch  out  into  anything  like  a  scientific  treatment 
of  such  topics.  On  the  other  hand,  the  coal  mine  is 


AIM  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  GEOGRAPHY     13 

a  legitimate  geographical  topic  which  deserves  to  be 
handled  in  this  study  because  it  can  never  be  so 
handled  in  any  other  school  study.  It  has  a  central, 
controlling  idea,  which  brings  into  relation  and  unity 
a  large  complex  body  of  facts.  It  is  the  type  of  one 
of  man's  occupations  in  subduing  the  world,  and  it  is 
closely  and  vitally  related  to  commerce,  structure  of 
the  earth,  and  to  human  welfare  generally. 

In  order  to  secure  and  establish  the  independent 
right  of  geography  in  the  sisterhood  of  studies,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  out  a  series  of  important  type 
subjects,  in  each  one  of  which  a  characteristic  central 
thought  is  so  distinctly  geographical  that  no  other 
standpoint  of  natural  science  or  history  is  able  to  dis- 
lodge the  teacher  from  his  geographical  stronghold. 
Now  this  is  exactly  what  is  claimed  for  the  leading 
series  of  type  studies  in  geography.  Each  one  of 
them  centres  in  a  geographical  idea  that  is  a  natural 
stronghold.  It  is  the  focus  for  a  variety  of  objects 
and  facts  which  find  in  it  as  a  centre  their  coherency 
and  unity.  The  Rhine  River  is  such  a  geographical 
unit.  A  California  gold  mine  is  another.  The 
Andes  Mountains,  Minneapolis,  and  Lake  Superior 
are  others.  If  we  can  maintain  the  right  of  this 
series  of  geographical  centres  to  a  distinct  place 
among  studies,  we  shall  be  able  to  hold  the  geo- 
graphical field  against  all  attacks,  even  against  those 
who  wouJd  obliterate  the  boundaries  between  geog- 
raphy and  natural  science. 


CHAPTER  II 

SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL 

GEOGRAPHY  has  more  sides  to  it  than  any  other 
school  subject.  As  from  a  hilltop  or  fortress,  it 
looks  out  in  all  directions  upon  the  fields  of  knowl- 
edge. It  draws  interesting  materials  from  many  sci- 
ences, from  history,  mathematics,  and  the  fine  arts. 

In  approaching  the  field  of  geography  with  chil- 
dren, we  find  ourselves  face  to  face  with  such  a 
variety  and  countless  multitude  of  facts  that  we  must 
at  once  resort  to  some  principle  of  selection.  Out  of 
this  miscellaneous  mass  of  facts  and  phenomena  we 
must  select  a  few.  Some  facts  are  secondary  or 
trivial ;  others  are  central  and  wide-reaching  in  their 
influence.  Some  facts  are  isolated  and  exceptional ; 
others  are  typical  and  illustrative  of  laws  and 
principles.  After  deciding  what  the  proper  realm 
of  geography  is,  it  is  our  next  duty  to  select  those 
important  subjects,  a  full  understanding  of  which 
will  be  equivalent  to  a  mastery  of  the  strategic 
points  in  a  widespread  country.  If  we  can  take  full 
possession  of  a  line  of  these  commanding  fortresses, 
we  shall  be  able  to  hold  and  subdue  the  whole 
country  at  our  leisure. 


SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL       15 

In  planning  the  course  of  study  in  geography,  we 
have  been  guided  in  the  selection  and  arrangement 
of  the  topics  by  the  following  ideas: — 

i.  The  general  movement  is  from  the  home  and 
home  neighborhood  outward,  first  to  the  home  state, 
then  to  the  surrounding  states,  to  the  United  States 
and  to  North  America  as  a  whole,  later  to  Europe 
and  the  rest  of  the  world. 

This  idea  while  important  is  not  exclusive  in 
determining  the  order  of  the  topics.  It  gives  empha- 
sis to  home  geography  and  to  those  familiar,  con- 
crete, home  experiences  which  should  form  the 
substratum  of  all  geographical  thinking.  The  typi- 
cal and  illustrative  character  of  home  objects  and 
occupations  which  makes  them  good  interpreters  of 
distant  and  foreign  subjects  has  been  overlooked. 
We  are  beginning  to  recognize  that  in  all  studies  the 
home  is  the  centre  and  rendezvous  for  all  excursions 
into  the  field  of  knowledge :  as  it  were  the  clearing- 
house for  our  whole  commerce  with  the  world. 

The  objection  that  upon  leaving  the  home  neigh- 
borhood it  makes  no  difference  whether  we  pass  into 
the  next  county  or  state  or  into  Africa  and  Australia 
is  not  worth  much.  The  child's  familiarity  through 
conversation  and  hearsay  with  the  next  lying  regions, 
cities,  mountains,  etc.,  is  tenfold  greater  than  his  ac- 
quaintance with  foreign  countries. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  that  children  should  early 
gain  a  somewhat  clear  notion  of  the  world-whole,  of 


1 6  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  great  earth  as  a  globe,  with  its  continental  lands 
and  wide-stretching  oceans.  This  simple  framework 
will  enable  him  to  locate  and  map  out  clearly  his  out- 
ward movement  into  the  great  world.  In  all  geography 
study,  the  mind  acts  both  analytically  and  syntheti- 
cally. Grasping  the  entire  earth  as  a  unit,  it  analyzes 
the  whole  into  its  parts,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  mov- 
ing outward  from  the  home  as  a  centre  it  builds 
constantly  upon  this  basis.  The  time  needed,  how- 
ever, to  get  a  clear  and  simple  grasp  of  the  world- 
whole  is  so  small,  while  the  work  of  gathering  the 
rich  and  varied  material  in  the  outward  movement 
from  the  home  is  so  great,  that  the  latter  largely 
predominates. 

2.  In  this  outward  movement  from  the  home  there 
are  four  distinct  stages :  (a)  Home  geography,  with  its 
excursions  and  varied  study  of  local  topography,  occu- 
pations, and  social  life.  (£)  The  leading  topics  of 
the  United  States  and  North  America.  This  is  a 
very  interesting  field  of  broad  and  varied  studies, 
illustrating  almost  all  phases  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge, (c)  The  important  phases  of  European  geog- 
raphy. While  Europe  is  relatively  a  small  part  of 
the  world  it  has  a  greater  number  of  valuable  and 
instructive  geographical  topics  than  any  other  conti- 
nent, due  to  the  varieties  of  its  physical  structure,  the 
many  distinctly  different  nationalities  it  exhibits,  and 
the  higher  degree  of  excellence  attained  in  the  arts  of 
life,  (d)  The  movement  from  Europe  outward  into 


SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL       17 

the  world-whole,  —  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  larger  physical  and  commercial  aspects 
of  the  world-whole. 

These  four  stages,  however,  do  not  determine  ex- 
clusively the  order  of  the  topics  even  in  the  synthetic 
movement  from  the  home  outward.  We  shall  find 
that  even  in  the  study  of  home  geography  as  well  as  in 
the  treatment  of  important  topics  of  the  United  States, 
many  other  parts  of  the  world,  as  China,  South  Amer- 
ica and  Australia,  will  be  brought  clearly  into  view. 

3.  The  most  obvious  reform  in  planning  the  course 
of  study  in  geography  is  that  of  reducing  the  number 
of  subjects  treated  in  each  grade  to  a  few  main  topics, 
each  of  which  has  an  important  fundamental  idea. 
Such  a  sifting  out  of  the  strong,  representative  topics 
most  deserving  of  treatment  will  enable  us  to  cast 
aside  a  burdensome  load  of  unnecessary  luggage. 

At  the  same  time  by  limiting  the  study  to  a  few 
important  units,  time  is  gained  for  those  picturesque 
and  descriptive  details  which  are  indispensable  to 
lively  interest  and  vigorous  thought. 

Professor  W.  M.  Davis  says :  "  The  hopeful  prog- 
ress that  school  geography  has  made  in  the  last 
twenty  years  is  characterized  largely  by  a  diminution 
in  the  number  of  isolated  empirical  items  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  by  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  number  of  principles  and  generalizations  to  be 
intelligently  studied.  There  is  no  reason  for  thinking 
that  this  progress  has  reached  its  limit ;  there  is,  on  the 


1 8  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

other  hand,  much  ground  for  believing  that,  as  the 
teachers  and  the  teachers  of  teachers  of  geography 
gain  a  larger  and  broader  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject in  its  mature  development,  the  replacement  of 
the  lonesome  empirical  item  by  the  rational  category, 
under  which  the  items  are  grouped  in  good  fellowship, 
will  continue  to  increase  beyond  its  present  moderate 
measure.  Items  must  still  be  presented  in  abundance, 
young  pupils  need  plenty  of  specific  information ;  but 
the  items  should  be  introduced  in  illustration  of  the 
categories  to  which  they  belong  rather  than  as  suf- 
ficient unto  themselves." 

4.  The  topics  selected  for  the  earlier  grades  should 
be  simple,  striking,  and  obvious  in  their  character,  not 
complex,  intricate,  and  inscrutable.  The  city  of  New 
York  as  a  centre  of  trade,  manufacture,  commerce, 
of  political  and  social  life,  is  too  multiplex  and  in- 
volved for  a  child's  appreciation.  It  should  be  put 
as  late  as  possible  in  the  study  of  the  United  States. 
The  more  difficult  problems  of  physiography,  as  of 
river-action,  mountain-building,  etc.,  the  complexities 
of  higher  manufacturing  processes  cannot  be  ex- 
plained to  younger  children.  For  the  intermediate 
grades  the  topics  chosen  should  present  crude,  tan- 
gible geographical  objects,  —  forests  and  lumbering, 
cattle-ranches,  striking  mountain  peaks,  the  larger  ag- 
ricultural productions,  iron-mining  and  blast  furnaces, 
famous  scenery  in  mountains  and  along  coasts  and 
rivers,  smaller  trade  centres  where  a  few  products 


SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL       19 

predominate,  and  voyages  and  journeys  among  strik- 
ing and  interesting  scenes. 

Throughout  the  course  of  study  there  should  be  a 
careful  movement  from  the  simple  to  more  complex 
topics.  If  it  were  simply  a  matter  of  learning  the 
names  and  locations  of  geographical  places,  products, 
etc.,  we  need  not  worry  about  this  grading  of  topics ; 
but  since  we  are  now  trying  to  acquire  gradually  a 
mastery  of  geographical  concepts,  of  underlying  ideas 
and  processes  in  man's  industrial  contact  with  the 
earth  forces  and  with  his  fellows,  we  must  arrange  in  a 
graded  series  the  units  of  study  which  lead  up  to  an 
understanding  of  man  in  his  complex  environment. 

5.  The  course  of  study  in  history  which  runs 
parallel  with  that  in  geography  is  everywhere  con- 
ditioned and  controlled  by  geographical  surroundings. 
Students  and  writers  of  history  are  giving  more  and 
more  attention  to  this  geographical  basis.  Not  only  is 
it  necessary  to  make  a  pretty  close  study  of  a  region  in 
order  to  understand  an  historical  topic  but  it  may  be 
well  also  to  make  a  fuller  study  of  the  whole  region 
from  the  geographical  standpoint.  Moreover,  since 
the  geography  and  history  of  America  and  Europe 
often  deal  with  the  same  districts  of  country  at  about 
the  same  time  in  the  school  course,  the  history  may 
well  suggest  a  number  of  the  best  geography  topics 
for  each  grade.  History  is  itself  based  upon  geogra- 
phy, and  it  also  greatly  increases  the  interest  in 
geography. 


20  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

6.  In  projecting  the  course  of  study  in  geography, 
we  have  almost  wholly  discarded  the  notion  of  the  con- 
centric circles  as  a  basis  for  arranging  subjects.    Each 
year  brings  on  a  new  set  of  topics  not  previously  stud- 
ied.   We  believe  that  there  are  other  and  much  more 
efficient  means  of  reviewing  previous  studies  and  of  or- 
ganizing the  new  and  the  old  into  one  compact  body  of 
knowledge  than  that  offered  by  the  concentric  circles. 

7.  The  place  which  pure  physiography  occupies  in 
this  course  of  study  is  very  limited,  and  may  be  dis- 
appointing to  many.     Nearly  every  topic,  however, 
should  receive  rich  contributions  from  physiographic 
knowledge,  and  the  teacher  needs  to  be  well  informed 
in  this  branch  of  science  in  order  to  bring  its  avail- 
able stores  of  fact  and  principle  into  close  relation  to 
geography  topics.      Some  of  the  topics  selected  will 
have  a  strong  physiographic  aspect,  but  their  bear- 
ings on  man's  conditions  and  fortunes  should  be  dis- 
cussed and  clearly  seen. 

It  is  clear  from  the  above  suggestions  that  we  have 
found  no  single  principle  which  is  comprehensive 
enough  to  determine  the  selection  of  a  course  of 
study  in  geography.  Being  the  most  complex  of  all 
school  studies,  its  curriculum  is  the  result  of  a  compo- 
sition of  forces.  The  most  general  statement  that  we 
can  arrive  at  is  that  geography  deals  with  men  in 
their  whole  physical  and  social  environment.  The 
whole  man  with  the  sum-total  of  influences  brought 
to  bear  upon  him  is  the  subject  of  geography. 


CHAPTER  III 

HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS 

HOME  geography  in  the  third  grade  has  to  do  with 
one's  native  town  and  neighborhood,  and  with  the 
varied  objects  of  study  they  supply. 

The  work  will  consist  in  the  main  of  excursions  and 
of  later  discussions  of  these  in  the  class,  —  excursions 
into  the  home  neighborhood  to  secure  a  close  and 
accurate  view  of  many  objects  and  occupations,  and 
discussions  in  class  to  bring  out  more  fully  their 
meaning  and  relations. 

There  are  seven  principal  topics  that  may  be  thus 
experimentally  studied  in  home  geography :  — 

1.  Food  products  and  occupations  connected  with 
them. 

2.  Building  materials  and  related  trades. 

3.  Clothing  materials  used,  manufacture,  etc. 

4.  Local  commerce,  roads,  bridges,  railroads. 

5.  Local  surface  features.      Streams,  hills,  woods, 
etc. 

6.  Town  and   county  government.      Court-house, 
city  hall,  council,  etc. 

7.  Climate  and  seasons.      Sun,  wind,  storms,  heat 


22  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

These  seven  topics  cover  a  broad  and  varied  field 
of  home  observation,  and  make  up  the  physical 
environment  which  presses  in  from  all  sides  through 
the  senses.  It  may  not  be  necessary  to  follow  this 
outline  in  a  fixed  or  unchanging  order,  but  to  con- 
sider the  season,  the  neighborhood,  the  size  of  the 
class,  and  the  local  opportunities  for  excursions. 

Many  topics  studied  in  the  two  preceding  grades 
have  paved  the  way  for  home  geography.  Robin- 
son Crusoe  has  suggested  many  local  interests.  The 
science  lessons  have  already  led  the  children  out 
upon  short  excursions.  The  fairy  tales  and  myths 
have  given  vivid  pictures  of  many  home  scenes. 

To  those,  therefore,  who  are  interested  in  the 
problem  of  concentration  of  studies,  the  whole  body 
of  knowledge  which  we  are  now  considering  in  third 
grade  shows  up  not  only  a  complex  of  closely  related 
studies  but  also  a  close  adaptation  to  the  interest  and 
needs  of  children  of  this  age. 

We  will  enter  upon  a  brief  discussion  of  each  of 
the  seven  topics  previously  mentioned. 

i.  Food  products. —  The  spring  season  is  a  fitting 
time  to  make  a  few  excursions  to  the  gardens  and, 
perhaps  still  farther,  to  the  farms.  The  gardeners  are 
busy  with  hotbeds,  seeds,  young  plants,  and  the  fresh- 
turned  soil.  At  this  season,  also,  many  of  the  children 
may  observe  the  work  of  ploughing,  transplanting, 
and  cultivating  in  their  own  gardens,  and  report 
upon  the  same.  In  the  fall,  also,  before  and  after 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  23 

the  first  frosts,  they  may  again  turn  a  closer  attention 
to  the  products  of  the  gardens,  orchards,  and  fields. 
In  the  springtime  it  may  be  well  to  select  one  or  two 
characteristic  vegetables  for  a  full  description  of  the 
planting  and  cultivation,  as  the  cabbage  seed,  hot- 
bed, transplanting,  hoeing,  storing,  or  covering-in  for 
winter.  In  the  same  way  one  or  two  of  the  fruits 
may  be  examined  and  discussed,  as  blackberries 
and  grapes. 

A  catalogue  should  be  made  of  the  vegetables 
produced  within  a  radius  of  several  miles,  as  toma- 
toes, cabbages,  turnips,  onions,  potatoes,  tobacco,  etc. 
Without  going  far  from  home,  but  keeping  within 
the  children's  range  of  observation,  we  may  form 
a  long  and  varied  list,  and  find  instructive  lessons, 
which  will  serve  good  purposes  in  future  studies. 
With  town  children  it  is  often  necessary  to  take 
systematic  lessons  of  this  kind,  else  they  will  be 
ignorant  of  elementary  ideas  in  agriculture,  com- 
merce, and  surface. 

The  list  of  food  products  about  our  home  may  be 
increased  by  a  list  of  the  fruits,  cultivated  and  wild, 
found  in  our  gardens,  orchards,  woods,  and  fields. 
We  need  to  get  definite  knowledge  of  plants  which 
yield  berries  and  other  small  fruit,  as  well  as  kinds 
of  apple  trees,  crabs,  plums,  cherries,  haws,  etc. 

Besides  the  vegetables  and  fruits,  what  grains  are 
raised  on  the  farms  near  us  ?  Take  a  grain  like  wheat 
and  describe  the  succession  of  steps  in  preparing  the 


24  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

ground,  drilling,  harvesting,  threshing,  milling,  etc., 
till  it  is  ready  for  final  use. 

The  farmer's  stock  is  an  important  part  of  his  out- 
fit, as  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  or  swine.  The  relations 
of  grain-raising  to  stock-raising,  and  the  profits  of  the 
farmer  in  combining  the  two,  are  of  interest.  A  de- 
scription of  the  farmer's  work  in  winter,  spring,  sum- 
mer, and  fall  may  give  some  notion  of  the  variety  of 
his  occupations.  The  tools,  machines,  barns,  and  sheds 
necessary  to  the  farmer  are  noticed.  It  is  worth  while 
to  observe  when  and  how  the  farmer  gets  his  grain 
and  stock  to  market.  The  need  of  wagons,  roads, 
bridges,  and  markets  is  made  apparent. 

2.  The  second  main  topic,  building  materials,  calls 
for  an  investigation  of  the  things  used  in  building 
our  houses,  —  pine  and  hard  wood,  the  varieties  of 
stone  used,  brick,  sand,  lime,  iron,  glass,  tin,  lead, 
slate,  paper,  and  paint.  Besides  observing  the  va- 
riety of  uses  to  which  these  things  are  put,  and  the 
quality  of  the  materials,  it  is  well  for  us  to  visit  a 
sawmill,  a  carpenter  shop,  a  stone  quarry,  a  brick- 
yard, a  planing-mill,  a  stone-cutter's,  a  tinner's,  a 
plumber's,  and  a  lime-kiln.  It  is  especially  desirable 
to  observe  the  work  upon  a  house  in  process  of  con- 
struction. A  connected  description  of  each  of  these 
places  should  be  given  by  the  children  after  obser- 
vation. It  is  systematic  school  work.  A  few  ex- 
cursions to  these  places  are  necessary,  children  and 
teacher  together.  We  observe,  also,  and  describe 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  25 

the  tools  and  machines  used  by  the  men   in   their 
different  occupations  or  trades. 

3.  The  third  topic,  clothing,  will  have  to  do  with 
wool  and  leather,  and  any  other  raw  materials,  as 
furs,  that  are  produced  in  our  neighborhood;  also, 
the  home  animals  that  yield  leather,  wool,  and  fur, 
also    the    tanneries,    shoe-shops,   woollen-mills,    and 
any   other   local   industry   bearing   on   this    subject. 
An  explanation  of  the  process  of  weaving  by  which 
the  fleeces  of  wool  are  converted  into  woollen  cloth 
or  blankets  is  quite  practicable  at  this  point.     The 
same   as   to  tanning.     Secondly,  we  would   discuss 
cotton,  silk,  linen,  straw,  and   rubber   goods  which 
are  brought   from   a   distance  but  are   familiar  in 
daily  use.     Our  purpose,  however,  is  not  to  discuss 
these  topics  exhaustively  at  this  point. 

Besides  the  occupations  already  mentioned,  nearly 
every  city  or  town  has  some  special  local  industries 
worthy  of  mention,  such  as  wagon-works,  paper-mills, 
a  shoe-factory,  glass-works,  machine-shops,  foundery, 
basket-factory,  etc.  It  is  well,  also,  to  call  to  mind 
the  great  variety  of  occupations  in  any  town  besides 
those  already  named,  as  grocers,  bankers,  dry-goods 
merchants,  doctors,  engineers,  wholesale  dealers,  black- 
smiths, watchmakers,  tailors,  etc. 

4.  Our  fourth  topic,  roads,  bridges,  and  local  com- 
merce, stands  in  close  relation  to  the  previously  dis- 
cussed occupations.    The  chief  wagon  roads  by  which 
the  farmers,  gardeners,  dairymen,  quarrymen,  and 


26  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

wood-cutters  bring  their  produce  to  market,  are  not 
only  remembered  and  described  by  the  children,  but 
these,  with  a  few  of  the  main  streets  of  the  town, 
form  the  nucleus  for  a  map  of  the  neighborhood. 
Farmers  and  others  bring  their  loads  into  town  for 
sale,  and  with  the  profits  thus  gained  buy  and  carry 
back  with  them  such  things  as  they  must  have  from 
the  city.  In  this  way  the  idea  of  a  town  as  a  trade 
centre  for  receiving  the  raw  products  of  the  surround- 
ing country,  and  in  turn  distributing  groceries,  cloth- 
ing, tools,  and  many  other  things  to  the  farmers,  is 
made  clear.  The  chief  railroad  lines  to  the  neigh- 
boring villages  or  towns  should  find  a  place  on  our 
map  as  it  is  gradually  outlined.  These  furnish  ideas 
of  commerce  on  a  larger  scale,  and  between  villages 
and  a  larger  town.  If  our  town  lies  on  a  navigable 
river  or  canal,  a  knowledge  of  the  boats  and  their 
cargoes  is  of  importance. 

5.  The  fifth  topic  that  requires  a  detailed  treatment 
is  local  surface  features.  Some  may  prefer  to  put  this 
subject  earlier  in  home  geography,  and  to  this  there 
is  no  objection  if  the  season  of  the  year  is  favorable. 
If  any  stream  flows  near  the  home,  all  the  leading 
facts  connected  with  such  a  watercourse  should  be 
observed  and  described,  for  example,  the  current  it- 
self with  its  shallows,  rapids,  and  deeper  places; 
the  sand-bars,  bottom-lands,  and  bluffs,  sloping  and 
tree-covered  or  steep  and  rocky;  the  old  channels 
and  lagoons ;  the  river  as  seen  at  different  seasons, 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  2? 

floods,  high  and  low  water,  uses  of  the  river  in  winter 
and  summer,  the  river  commerce,  if  it  is  navigable ; 
the  whole  river  valley  with  its  irregular  course  as 
seen  from  some  commanding  point.  Then  there  are 
the  smaller  streams  and  valleys  opening  into  the 
larger.  Up  these  valleys,  roads  are  laid  out  into 
the  uplands.  In  some  places  the  bottom-lands  are 
rich  and  productive,  in  others  sandy  or  flooded. 
Erosion,  or  the  wearing  force  of  water,  can  be 
clearly  seen.  Then  there  may  be  wooded  slopes, 
brooks,  and  springs,  rocky  cliffs,  and  picturesque 
outlooks,  the  regular  layer  of  rocks,  and  the  caves 
in  the  sandstones.  Even  along  smaller  streams 
many  of  the  characteristic  objects  of  a  watercourse 
may  be  discussed.  There  are  many  other  surface 
features  which  we  may  observe  best  near  home.  The 
idea  of  the  forest  and  of  the  prairie  may  be  dis- 
tinctly formed,  meadow  and  cultivated  field,  hill 
and  mountain,  valley  and  plain,  ridge  and  water- 
shed, island  and  lake,  waterfall  and  mill  stream, 
difference  in  soil  and  consequent  differences  in 
products.  If  we  understood  how  much  all  future 
geography  study  depends  upon  this  use  of  home 
materials,  we  certainly  would  not  neglect  them. 

6.  The  sixth  topic  is  home  government.  The  town 
hall,  the  court-house,  and  the  officers  there  em- 
ployed, furnish  the  best  starting-point.  What 
duties  have  these  people  to  perform,  —  the  mayor, 
the  town  council,  the  county  judge,  and  county  treas- 


28  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

urer  ?  What  does  the  town  council  meet  to  discuss 
and  decide?  (waterworks,  streets,  police,  improve- 
ments, taxes,  etc.).  It  is  not  the  abstract  but  the  con- 
crete treatment  of  these  subjects  that  children  need. 
Beginning  with  the  objects  and  persons  we  see,  we 
are  to  interest  them  in  these  things  still  further. 

7.  Still  a  seventh  topic  of  home  geography  is 
found  in  the  observation  of  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
and  seasons,  the  varying  length  of  day  and  night, 
and  the  changing  position  of  sun  and  moon.  We 
forget  that  these  grand  object  lessons,  some  of  them 
the  most  beautiful  and  imposing,  belong  directly  to 
the  child's  home  and  are  a  part  of  it.  Such  arc  a 
few  of  the  more  noticeable  constellations,  the  clouds 
and  storms,  cold,  heat,  rain,  and  their  effects,  the 
sunsets.  These  ideas  lie  at  the  basis  of  mathematical 
geography  and  climate,  just  as  some  of  the  other 
topics  contain  the  concrete  elements  of  commerce, 
surface,  and  government. 

A  brief  survey  of  the  topics  thus  far  suggested  in 
outline  will  show  that  the  children  by  personal  in- 
spection and  experience  have  become  acquainted 
with  the  common  staple  necessities  and  leading  occu- 
pations of  men,  as  farming,  mining,  manufacturing, 
trade,  and  with  many  lesser  ones ;  that  the  idea  of 
commerce  and  a  trade  centre  has  become  clear.  Defi- 
nite ideas  also  have  been  formed  as  to  a  river,  brook, 
hill,  forest,  prairie,  field,  lowland,  valley,  island,  slope, 
watershed,  etc.  Clear  notions  of  town  and  county 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  29 

government  have  been  reached,  while  climate,  the 
seasons,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  weather,  have  not 
only  been  seen,  but  closely  observed.  There  is 
scarcely  a  topic  in  subsequent  geographical  study 
which  does  not  find  a  sure,  concrete  footing  in  this 
preliminary  work.  If  there  is  any  value  in  careful, 
personal  observation  or  in  the  principle  of  going 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  it  is  fully  illustrated 
in  the  successive  grades  of  geography  study.  The 
home  constitutes  the  first  great  unit  in  this  branch  of 

work. 

EXCURSIONS 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  a  successful  study  of  the 
home  neighborhood  can  be  carried  on  without  excur- 
sions. A  single  excursion  will  often  supply  abundant 
materials  for  instructive  discussion  for  two  or  three 
lessons.  Any  attempt  to  discuss  the  same  topics, 
without  the  basis  of  real  observation,  which  the  trip 
supplies,  will  soon  grow  formal  and  unattractive. 
There  is  much  variety  of  surprising  knowledge  to  be 
gained  by  stepping  from  the  schoolroom  directly 
into  this  great  world  of  realities.  The  ignorance  of 
most  so-called  intelligent  people  of  many  important 
things  about  home  is  matter  for  surprise.  It  is  an 
extremely  faulty  training  that  allows  us  to  pass  by  so 
many  of  these  things  without  any  desire  or  effort  to 
understand  them. 

When  we  come  to  study  the  climate,  surface,  indus- 
tries, products,  and  commerce  of  distant  states  and  of 


30  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

foreign  countries,  our  ability  to  understand  and 
construct  correct  pictures  is  based  upon  the  va- 
ried ideas  of  similar  kind  that  we  have  gathered 
in  vivid  and  real  form  from  our  home  neighbor- 
hood. The  imagination  must  be  our  chief  helper 
in  constructing  geographical  pictures  after  leaving 
home.  But  the  imagination  cannot  construct  pic- 
tures out  of  nothing  any  more  than  a  builder  can 
construct  a  house  out  of  air.  The  imagination  works 
with  the  materials  of  experience  already  gathered. 
It  is  not  expected  that  we  should  gather  all  the 
experimental  facts  we  may  need  in  third-grade 
excursions.  We  can  do  but  little  more  than  open 
the  door  into  life  and  its  varied  forms,  but  we  can 
make  a  useful  beginning. 

Excursions  with  groups  of  school  children  need  to 
be  well  planned.  The  teacher  must  know  pretty 
clearly  what  are  the  chief  objects  to  be  seen.  It  should 
be  as  definitely  planned  as  a  lesson.  If  possible,  the 
place  would  better  be  visited  beforehand  by  the  teacher. 
During  the  excursion  it  is  often  desirable  to  get  the 
children  together  and  direct  their  attention  to  certain 
objects  or  processes,  then  take  them  aside  for  question 
and  inquiry. 

After  returning  to  school  (the  next  day,  perhaps), 
the  observations  gathered  upon  the  excursion  should 
be  related  in  class,  explanations  made,  faulty  notions 
corrected,  and  many  ideas  brought  out  more  distinctly. 
Such  a  discussion  may  be  as  helpful  as  the  excursion 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  31 

itself.  Many  ideas  connected  with  the  business  or 
place  may  be  brought  home  to  their  minds,  which 
were  not  seen  or  noticed  at  the  time,  but  which  may 
be  very  important  for  the  understanding  of  the  whole 
subject.  If  a  factory  is  visited,  the  kinds  of  ma- 
terials used  and  where  obtained  may  be  investigated. 

Drawing  the  objects,  machines,  or  processes  seen 
is  an  excellent  means  of  making  more  vivid  their 
observations.  In  visiting  shops,  factories,  buildings, 
and  even  in  nature,  many  objects  will  be  more 
clearly  formed  in  mind  if  the  practice  of  drawing 
is  frequently  resorted  to  —  not  aesthetic  drawing, 
but  mere  sketching,  diagramming,  and  picturing  ob- 
jects in  a  crude  way.  It  may  be  well,  also,  in  the 
drawing  lesson  proper,  to  take  some  of  these  ob- 
jects for  more  accurate  reproduction.  But  we  had 
in  mind  not  the  drawing  lesson  proper,  but  the 
sketching  for  help  in  understanding  and  remem- 
bering facts  and  objects. 

There  are  many  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a 
general  introduction  of  excursions  : — 

1.  It  has  not  been  the  custom  to  make  such  excur- 
sions for  purposes    of    instruction.     It   is  generally 
supposed  that  children  will  pick  up  this  kind  of  in- 
formation without  aid  from  teachers. 

2.  It  is  difficult   to  manage  large  classes  out  of 
doors.     It  is   hard   enough   to   keep   children  busy 
with  good  work  in  school.     Get  them  outdoors,  and 
the  burden  is  doubled.     Children  are  more  difficult 


32  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

to  manage  in  the  open  air  than  in  a  schoolroom. 
They  take  liberties,  etc.  It  is  a  real  burden,  often- 
times, to  go  upon  an  excursion  with  a  large  class  of 
children.  Over  against  this  difficulty  there  is  one 
considerable  advantage.  A  teacher  who  wishes  to 
know  and  understand  her  children  can  oftentimes 
do  it  much  better  outdoors  or  upon  a  journey  than 
in  a  schoolroom.  They  are  more  free  to  express 
themselves.  Moreover,  when  the  right  spirit  pre- 
vails, children  and  teacher  come  closer  together  and 
arrive  at  a  better  understanding  and  sympathy  with 
each  other  when  abroad.  Even  if  a  teacher  can't  get 
away  with  children  more  than  once  a  term,  it  will  be 
a  new  experience  that  will  add  much  to  the  interest 
of  school  life. 

3.  There  are  dangers  connected  with  visiting  fac- 
tories and  workshops.  Great  precaution  in  this 
respect  is  necessary.  A  single  unfortunate  accident 
would  outbalance  a  great  amount  of  good.  A  teacher 
should  be  very  watchful  to  prevent  any  accidents. 
In  mills  and  shops,  where  machinery  is  used,  it  is 
better  not  to  take  more  than  a  dozen  or  fifteen  chil- 
dren at  a  time,  and  to  look  out  for  their  safety.  Even 
in  excursions,  where  no  danger  is  present,  a  teacher 
should  be  watchful  and  careful  not  to  overexcite  or 
overstrain  the  children.  In  climbing  the  stairs  to  get 
to  the  cupola  of  a  large  school,  one  little  girl  became 
timid  and  nervous,  and  was  taken  back  to  the  lower 
rooms  at  her  request. 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  33 

EXAMPLES  OF  EXCURSIONS 
TRIP  TO  A  PLANING-MILL  IN  BLOOMINGTOK 

1.  Preparation  for  the  trip. 

2.  Trip  by  street-car. 

3.  Visit  to  a  planing-mill : — 

a.  The  planing-machine. 

b.  The  circular  saw  or  buzz-saw. 

c.  The  scroll-saw. 

d.  The  band-saw. 

e.  The  turning-lathe. 

f.  Machine  for  making  door  panels. 

g.  The  engine  room.     Bands.     Shaft. 

h.  General  view  of  storehouse,  lumber-yard,  etc. 

I.  Preparation.  —  Notice  was  given  to  the  children 
that  on  the  following  day  a  trip  would  be  made  to 
the  planing-mill,  and  they  should  get  permission  of 
their  parents  before  going. 

At  2:15  P.M.  the  next  day,  seventeen  children  out 
of  a  class  of  nineteen  set  out  under  the  direction  of 
the  teacher.  Taking  a  street-car,  they  soon  came 
within  a  block  of  the  planing-mill. 

Before  entering  the  mill  the  children  were  fully 
cautioned  against  touching  the  machinery  or  get- 
ting too  close  to  wheels  or  bands.  The  teacher 
then  inquired  at  the  office  of  the  mill  to  secure  per- 
mission to  go  through  the  shop.  The  teacher  then 


34  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

glanced  into  the  mill  to  see  where  to  begin  the  in- 
spection of  machines.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
children  together,  to  call  their  attention  to  the 
special  points. 

a.  The  first  process  observed  was  the  planing  of 
rough  boards  at    the   planing-machine.     The  effect 
could  be  seen  as  the  board  came  through  smooth  and 
bright  on  one  side.     But  the  process  could  not  be 
seen,  as  the  knives  were  covered  up  by  the  large  pipe 
that  carried  away  the  chips  or  shavings. 

b.  A   band-saw   was    next  examined   as  it  stood 
motionless.      The  children,  at  first,  failed  to   notice 
how  the   saw  circles   about   the   two  wheels.     The 
workman  then  applied  the  power,  and  sawed  out  a 
number  of  brackets. 

c.  A  scroll-saw  was  also  observed,  both  at  rest  and 
in  motion.     The  up  and  down  movement  was  seen, 
and  several  pieces  of  scrollwork  turned  out. 

d.  Several  circular  or  buzz  saws  were  examined  in 
action  as  they  sliced  up  inch  and  two  inch  boards. 
They  were  also  used  in  sawing  up  pieces  of  board  of 
specified  length. 

e.  A   turning-lathe   was   closely   observed   as   the 
workman  chiselled  off  a  post  for  a  porch.     The  skill 
and  beauty  of  this  work  were  surprising. 

f.  Three  machines  were   also   seen   in   motion  as 
they  mortised  and  turned  out  door-panels. 

Several  other  machines  were  not  in  operation,  and 
therefore  were  not  more  closely  studied. 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  35 

g.  We  all  passed  into  the  engine  room  to  observe 
the  belt  which  transfers  the  power  from  the  engine 
to  the  main  shaft  that  runs  the  whole  length  of  the 
mill.  After  seeing  this  source  of  power  we  passed 
again  into  the  main  room  to  notice  again  how  the 
wheels  ranged  along  the  main  shaft  are  supplied 
with  belts  which  carry  the  power  to  the  different 
machines. 

h.  Passing  out  of  the  planing-mill,  we  stopped  for 
a  brief  review  of  the  chief  machines  and  operations 
observed.  We  also  took  a  survey  of  the  lumber- 
yard, the  great  chimney,  and  the  storehouse  where 
the  doors,  sash,  and  other  fine  materials  manufac- 
tured in  the  mill  are  stored. 

In  passing  along  the  street  we  came  to  a  long,  two- 
story,  brick  livery-stable  in  the  process  of  construc- 
tion. It  was  very  wide,  with  a  heavy  framework 
of  wooden  timbers  as  interior  support.  This  build- 
ing gave  an  excellent  chance  to  observe  two 
things.  First,  two  rows  of  heavy  posts,  a  foot  in 
diameter,  supporting  two  heavy  beams  extending 
through  the  length  of  the  building.  Upon  these 
beams  rested  the  foot- wide  joists,  whose  other  ends 
were  built  into  the  brick  walls  at  the  side.  A  better 
opportunity  to  see  clearly  the  interior  frame  of  a 
large  building  could  hardly  be  found.  Secondly, 
a  single  horse  was  being  used,  with  a  wheel  and 
pulley,  to  lift  loads  of  brick  and  mortar  to  the 
builders  who  were  at  work  upon  the  second  story 


36  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  upper  and  lower  wheel  could  be  distinctly  seen, 
also  the  movement  of  the  rope  and  load.  This  is  not 
only  a  good  typical  illustration  of  the  rope  and  pulley, 
but  also  of  the  idea  of  horse-power,  which  is  so  often 
referred  to. 

When  one  is  out  upon  excursions  with  children  it 
is  well  to  take  advantage  of  such  incidental  object 
lessons  as  are  thus  offered.  We  might  travel  many 
miles  without  again  meeting  such  an  opportunity  as 
was  thus  thrown  in  our  way. 

In  the  next  geography  lesson  in  the  schoolroom 
the  main  objects  which  were  seen  upon  this  excursion 
were  thoroughly  discussed.  It  will  be  found  that 
many  things  which  were  supposed  to  be  clear  to  the 
boys  and  girls  were  not  so.  Many  things,  also,  which 
were  not  clear,  can  be  made  so  to  the  children. 
Sketches  and  diagrams  were  made  both  by  teacher 
and  pupils. 

The  whole  time  occupied  by  the  excursion,  from 
the  time  of  taking  the  street-car  till  we  got  off  at 
home,  was  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes.  If  it  had 
been  desirable,  the  time  could  have  been  shortened  to 
one  hour  and  forty  minutes. 

The  pine  boards  and  different  kinds  of  wood  used 
in  the  planing-mill  were  noticed,  and  attention  called 
to  the  railroads  which  bring  these  materials  from  a 
distance.  The  relation  of  the  planing-mill  to  the 
work  of  contractors  and  carpenters  in  house-building 
was  discussed  in  the  class. 


37 
TRIP  TO  THE  CUPOLA  OF  THE  NORMAL  BUILDING 

1.  View  to  the  west. 

2.  View  to  the  east. 

3.  View  to  the  south. 

4.  View  to  the  north. 

In  the  cupola  of  the  Normal  School  building,  we 
are  lifted  above  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees  in  the 
campus,  and  can  look  abroad  over  a  wide  area  of  what 
was  once  a  prairie  country.  Looking  first  to  the 
west,  we  see  a  characteristic  farming  country  of  the 
prairie  region.  There  are  groves  of  trees  about 
the  farm-houses,  and  fields  of  different  kinds,  as  corn, 
oats,  and  pasture.  To  the  northwest  lies  a  prairie 
with  but  few  trees,  rolling  and  stretching  away  for 
many  miles.  We  can  trace  the  main  road  westward, 
and  as  the  eye  follows  it  to  the  western  horizon  we  see 
a  line  of  black.  It  is  the  woods  about  eight  miles 
west  of  Normal.  This  natural  forest  stretches  from 
the  south  along  the  western  horizon  for  many  miles. 

Passing  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  cupola,  we  look 
down  upon  the  scattered  village  of  Normal,  in  sum- 
mer time  so  embowered  in  trees  that  few  houses  can 
be  clearly  seen.  The  whole  town  has  become  a 
grove  of  maples  and  elms,  but  when  the  leaves  are 
fallen  we  can  see  the  chief  streets,  the  two  railroads, 
and  the  station  at  the  junction,  the  stores,  the  big 
barns  and  windmills,  and  to  the  northeast  a  mile 
away  the  Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home.  Beyond  the 


38  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

town  to  the  east,  the  road  climbs  some  long  hills  as 
it  rises  to  the  higher  prairie  country  beyond.  To 
the  east  in  this  direction  can  be  seen  the  nursery  and 
the  stock-yards. 

Turning  to  the  south,  we  have  a  city  before  us. 
Two  miles  away  we  can  see  ten  or  a  dozen  church 
spires,  the  court-house,  the  Wesleyan,  the  smoking 
chimneys  of  the  big  car-shops  along  the  Chicago  & 
Alton  Railroad,  the  stove  foundery  to  the  southeast 
on  the  line  of  the  Illinois  Central.  The  tall  water- 
tower  of  the  Bloomington  waterworks  is  the  highest 
object  in  the  whole  landscape.  The  line  of  the 
Chicago  &  Alton,  and  also  of  the  Illinois  Central,  can 
be  distinctly  traced,  as  well  as  the  street-car  line 
between  Normal  and  Bloomington. 

The  culverts  can  also  be  seen  where  the  little 
stream  that  drains  the  town  of  Normal  passes  under 
the  railroad. 

Turning  our  eyes  out  the  north  window,  we  again 
have  a  prairie  country,  sloping  upward.  There  is  a 
steady  slope  for  three  miles  or  more  from  the  north 
southward  to  Sugar  Creek.  Beyond  the  creek  toward 
Bloomington  the  road  rises  somewhat  abruptly,  leaving 
a  perceptible  valley  between  Normal  and  Bloomington. 

It  is  necessary  to  discuss  these  matters  closely 
with  the  children,  so  as  to  give  their  observations 
clearness  and  accuracy. 

When  we  consider  the  variety  of  typical  objects 
seen  in  such  a  view  of  the  country  as  this,  it  proves 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  39 

its  utility.  Prairie,  forest,  cultivated  fields,  railroads, 
factories  and  shops,  country  roads,  bridges,  and  the 
churches  and  buildings  of  a  city  furnish  important 
elementary  pictures.  A  second  lesson  in  class  should 
give  the  children  a  chance  for  a  full  description  and 
discussion  of  these  objects. 

With  this  survey  of  the  surrounding  country  as  a 
basis,  the  teacher  and  children  should  draw  a  map  of 
the  region  observed,  laying  out  the  campus  as  a 
centre,  the  chief  wagon  roads  and  railroads,  and 
locating  upon  it  the  leading  points  of  interest  already 
discussed.  This  should  be  worked  out  on  a  fixed 
scale,  taking  some  familiar  half-mile  or  mile  stretch 
as  a  standard  of  measurement. 

VISIT  TO  A  DWELLING-HOUSE  IN  PROCESS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

1.  The  cellar,  basement  walls. 

2.  The  framework. 

3.  The  sheathing,  weather-boarding,  flooring,  shin- 
gling. 

4.  Window-frames,  doors,  and  casings. 

5.  Plastering,  slaking  lime. 

6.  Tinning,  spouting,  cistern. 

7.  Painting. 

8.  Chimneys,  heating,  ventilation. 

In  the  spring  or  fall  some  dwelling  is  usually  in 
process  of  construction  within  a  block  or  two  of  the 
school.  With  a  third-grade  class  it  is  advisable  to 


40  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

make  perhaps  three  excursions  of  half  or  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour  each  to  such  a  house  in  process  of 
building. 

When  the  foundation  is  just  complete  or,  better 
still,  while  the  masons  are  at  work  upon  it,  notice 
the  depth  and  extent  of  the  cellar,  the  materials  and 
tools  used,  windows,  and  door-frames.  On  the  re- 
turn from  the  first  excursion  describe  the  materials 
and  work  seen.  Draw  also  the  ground  plan  of  the 
basement,  using  the  foot  or  yard  as  a  standard  of 
measurement. 

The  second  trip  may  be  made  when  the  framework 
is  toward  completion,  so  that  the  posts,  joists,  beams, 
studding,  and  rafters  may  be  seen,  and  how  they  are 
mortised  or  nailed  together  and  rested  upon  the 
brick  foundation.  Notice  the  joists  of  the  second 
story ;  also  the  rafters  of  the  roof  and  how  fastened 
at  the  ridge  and  sides.  The  manner  of  setting  in 
door-frames  and  window-casings  may  be  seen. 

A  third  trip  may  be  made  to  observe  the  lathing, 
plastering,  and  interior  finish.  The  slaking  of  the 
lime  and  mixing  with  hair  are  also  instructive  in  the 
preparations  for  plastering.  Later  we  may  observe 
the  finer  work  of  interior  finish,  painting,  graining, 
decorating,  papering,  etc. 

The  material  and  tools  used  in  all  the  processes  of 
building  should  be  seen  and  understood.  The  prep- 
aration of  materials  at  the  carpenter  shop,  planing- 
mill,  and  tin-shop  should  be  noticed.  The  different 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  41 

trades  involved  in  building,  as  of  masons,  carpenters, 
tinners,  plumbers,  painters,  contractors,  and  millmen 
should  be  appreciated,  each  in  its  specialty. 

Each  excursion,  of  course,  will  be  worked  over  in 
the  schoolroom,  with  such  descriptions  and  drawings 
as  are  needed  to  bring  out  clearly  the  facts  observed. 

LIST  OF  POSSIBLE  EXCURSIONS 

1.  House-building.  —  Materials,  trades,  tools. 

2.  Gardens.  —  In   spring  and   fall.    Tools,  vege- 
tables. 

3.  Nursery.  —  Fruit  and  shade  trees,  grafting. 

4.  Feed-mill.  —  Corn-sheller. 

5.  Blacksmith  and  wagon-maker. 

6.  Tinner.  —  Soldering,  tools,  machines. 

7.  Grocery  store.  —  Variety  of  home  and  foreign 
products. 

8.  Shoemaker.  —  Tools,  kinds  of  leather. 

9.  Cupola  of  schoolhouse.  —  Slopes,  towns,  fields, 
etc. 

10.  Miller's  Park.  —  Trees,  wild  animals,  creek. 

1 1.  Planing-mill.  —  Machines,  processes,  products. 

1 2.  Court-house.  —  Records,  court-room. 

13.  Grain  elevator.  —  Belts,  pockets,  bins,  chutes 

14.  Cooper  shop.  —  Hoop  poles,  staves,  tools. 

15.  Wagon-shop. — Woodwork,  ironwork. 

1 6.  Foundery.  —  Moulds,  filling  the  moulds. 

17.  Hothouse.  —  Construction,  heating,  plants. 

1 8.  Waterworks.  —  Engine,  pipes,  tower. 


42  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

19.  Carpet-weaver.  —  Threads,  shuttle,  frame. 

20.  Printing-office. — Setting  type,  printing-machine. 

21.  A  bakery.  —  Kneading,  the  oven. 

22.  A  stone  quarry.  —  Drilling,  blasting,  hauling. 

23.  Bridges.  —  Wagon  bridge  and  railroad  bridge. 

24.  Soldiers'  monument.  —  Park,  history. 

25.  Machine-shops.  —  Engines,  cars. 

26.  Flour-mill.  —  Water-power  or  steam-power. 

27.  Brick-yard.  —  Making  bricks,  the  kiln. 

28.  Canning-factory.  —  Tomatoes,  corn. 

29.  A  natural  forest.  —  Kinds  of  trees,  location. 

30.  Gasworks.  —  Coke,  furnaces,  tank. 

31.  A  dairy.  —  Churn,  cheese-making. 

32.  Furniture  factory.  —  Materials,  machines. 

33.  China  store.  —  Kinds  of  ware. 

34.  Tannery.  —  Vats,  bark. 

35.  Woollen-mill. —  Washing  and  picking,  carding, 
spinning,  weaving. 

36.  Sawmill.  —  Logs,  saws,  stacking. 

37.  A  windmill.  —  Pumping  water. 

38.  A  hardware  store.  —  Farming  machinery. 

39.  A  bluff  or  hill.  —  Watershed,  slopes. 

40.  Stream.  —  Banks,  floods,  erosion. 

41.  Shoe-factory.  —  Division  of  labor,  machines. 

42.  The  lake-shore  or  sea-shore. 

43.  A  fruit  store.  —  Sources  from  which  fruits  are 
obtained. 

44.  Visit  to  a  schooner  or  steamer.  —  Cargo,  voyage, 
sailors. 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  4$ 

More  than  half  of  the  above-named  excursions 
have  been  made  with  classes  by  the  author,  for  school 
purposes.  This  list  may  be  considerably  enlarged. 
In  almost  any  village  neighborhood  it  would  not  be 
difficult  to  find  twenty  places  adapted  to  instructive 
excursions.  But  even  if  but  a  half-dozen  such  trips 
can  be  made  during  the  year,  they  will  prove  valu- 
able in  several  ways. 

Some  of  the  excursions  in  home  geography  treat 
topics  which  lead  out  in  an  interesting  way  to  the 
larger  world  beyond  the  home. 

In  visiting  a  house  in  process  of  building  or  a 
lumber-yard  we  naturally  inquire  where  the  lumber 
comes  from.  In  New  York  State,  children  should  be 
shown  on  a  map  how  lumber  is  brought  down  from 
Canada  and  Lake  Champlain  to  Albany  and  distrib- 
uted southwards.  A  map  of  the  United  States  or 
of  North  America  is  needed  to  give  the  full  answer 
to  this  question.  In  visiting  a  fruit  store  the  children 
see  apples,  oranges,  and  bananas.  When  this  is 
discussed  in  class,  a  map  of  the  United  States  and 
North  America  is  needed  to  locate  the  apple-produc- 
ing states,  New  York,  Michigan  and  Missouri,  to  see 
where  oranges  are  raised  in  Florida  and  California, 
and  to  trace  back  the  bananas  and  pineapples  to 
Jamaica  and  the  West  Indies.  In  the  same  way  we 
have  occasion  to  locate  the  oyster-beds  in  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Long  Island  Sound,  the  sugar-cane  fields 
in  Louisiana,  the  hard-coal  fields  in  Pennsylvania,  the 


44  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

beef -producing  regions  on  the  Western  plains  and 
cattle-ranches,  the  Georgia  pine  for  our  houses,  in  the 
Southern  states,  the  peanut  lands  in  Arkansas,  the 
salmon  in  the  Columbia  River,  salt  in  Central  New 
York,  etc. 

Even  a  globe  and  a  map  of  the  world  will  be  needed 
in  the  third  grade  to  locate  Japan  and  China  as  tea  and 
silk  producing  lands,  Brazil  as  the  land  of  coffee,  the 
Mediterranean  countries  for  olive-oil  and  dates,  Ger- 
many for  beer  and  sugar,  Italy  for  macaroni,  hand-or- 
gans and  fruit-venders,  France  for  wine  and  silk,  etc. 

This  study  of  foreign  lands  in  early  grades  need 
not  be  forced  prematurely  upon  children,  but  as  occa- 
sion rises  in  these  home  excursions  it  will  be  interest- 
ing for  them  to  locate  the  countries  from  which  various 
products  come.  Of  course,  the  children  will  not  at 
first  understand  the  globes  and  maps.  Distances,  di- 
rections from  the  home,  and  the  meaning  of  lines  and 
colors  on  the  map  will  call  for  careful  explanation. 

Throughout  the  lessons  in  home  geography  in  the 
third  and  fourth  grades,  there  will  be  many  opportuni- 
ties for  making  these  brief  excursions  into  the  great 
world  beyond,  arousing  curiosity  and  paving  the  way 
for  later  studies. 

In  the  fourth-grade  geography  there  are  three 
additional  avenues  of  approach  to  the  large  world 
beyond  the  home  neighborhood. 

I.  A  few  leading  topics  of  the  home  state,  such  as 
the  Hudson  River,  Erie  Canal,  Adirondack  Moun- 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  45 

tains,  dairying  and  fruit-raising  in  New  York  require 
a  study  of  the  map  of  the  whole  state  and  to  some 
extent  of  those  adjacent  to  it. 

2.  A  few  simple  descriptive  topics  of  a  picturesque 
and  outstanding  character  touching  up  some  of  the 
more  pronounced  features  of  North  America :  for  ex- 
ample, a  description  of  striking  scenes  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  from  Newfoundland  to  Florida,  including  the 
fisheries,  the  rocky  coast  of  Maine,  the  summer  resorts 
and   sea-bathing,  the   oyster-beds,  the  waterways   of 
the  Carolinas  and  Florida,  the  winter  resorts  of  the 
South,  the   lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations,  the 
great    harbors    and   fortresses    for    shore    defence. 
Another  topic  would  be  a  summer  among  the  lakes 
and  mountains  of  New  England,  or  a  trip  down  the 
Mississippi  from  Itasca  to  the  Delta,  or  life  among 
the  cattle-ranches  of  the  Western  plains  and  foot-hills, 
or  a  winter  in  Florida,  or  travels  among  interesting 
scenes  and  famous  resorts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Reenforced  by  good  pictures  and  descriptions,  a  few 
large,  easily  comprehensible  topics  of  this  sort  might 
serve  as  a  hopeful  introduction  to  the  geography  of 
North  America. 

3.  Several  large  geographical  units  are  suggested 
by    the    pioneer    histories    which    are    handled    in 
fourth  grade :  for  example,  the  more  striking  points 
in  the  physical  character  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
and  of  the  Great  Lakes  including  their  value  to  the 
Indians  and  early  explorers ;  the  dangers  and  toils  of 


46  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

a  sailing  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  in  the  days  of 
Hudson  and  John  Smith;  the  great  forests  of  the 
Atlantic  states  in  the  early  days  of  settlement,  cloth- 
ing plains,  and  mountain  sides ;  the  fisheries  on  the 
Banks  and  their  influence  upon  early  voyages  and 
trade ;  the  bays,  rivers,  and  mountains  of  Virginia  in 
connection  with  Smith's  adventures;  the  difficulties 
of  crossing  the  Alleghany  Mountains  in  early  days, 
including  the  river  valleys,  water-gaps  and  water- 
sheds. 

In  addition  to  the  above  variety  of  geographical 
topics  in  fourth  grade,  several  of  the  stories  of  Euro- 
pean history  and  the  narratives  of  early  explorers 
from  England,  France,  and  Holland  will  direct  atten- 
tion to  the  geography  of  Europe  and  its  chief  coun- 
tries. All  the  history  stories  both  in  America  and 
Europe  should  be  clearly  grasped  in  their  geo- 
graphical environment,  with  such  study  of  maps  and 
blackboard  sketches  as  will  leave  clear  and  strong 
impressions.  While  the  geographical  and  historical 
studies  should  be  kept  clearly  distinct  from  each 
other,  so  that  each  has  its  own  well-defined  series  of 
topics,  the  close  and  necessary  relations  between  the 
two  should  be  emphasized  in  each  study. 

THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 

Besides  the  seven  topics  of  the  home  environment, 
there  should  be,  in  the  oral  work  of  third  grade,  a 
discussion  of  the  world  as  a  whole. 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  47 

Different-sized  globes  may  be  used  to  bring  out 
the  idea  of  the  earth  as  a  sphere.  The  continents 
and  oceans  may  be  located,  the  hot  regions  of  the 
equator  and  the  cold,  polar  regions  described,  without 
entering  into  mathematical  geography.  North  Amer- 
ica should  be  examined  a  little  more  in  detail,  and 
our  own  home  state  located  in  its  proper  relation  to 
the  whole  country.  It  seems  to  us  better  to  leave 
out  of  third  grade  the  explicit  discussion  of  the 
earth's  motions,  the  causes  of  the  seasons,  latitude 
and  longitude,  and  the  general  forms  of  contour  and 
surface  given  even  in  our  elementary  geographies. 

The  purpose  of  this  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole 
is  to  get  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  earth  and  of  our  own 
position  and  relation  to  it,  so  that  we  are  prepared  to 
move  out  from  the  home  with  a  clear  knowledge  of 
our  bearings  and  a  simple  understanding  of  the  whole 
earth  upon  which  we  live.1  It  seems  clear  that  only 
a  few  lessons  need  be  given  to  this  study  of  the  earth 
as  a  whole,  and  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
time  in  third  and  fourth  grades  may  be  put  upon  the 
study  of  home  objects. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  children's  early 
horizon  of  geographical  study  should  not  be  lim- 
ited to  the  immediate  home  neighborhood.  Even 

1  A  few  lively  oral  drills  with  the  whole  class  in  naming  and  locating 
the  continents,  oceans,  chief  countries,  and  regions  of  the  world  will 
quickly  fix  the  essential  points  in  mind.  Left  alone  with  their  books 
at  this  early  age,  children  dawdle,  squander  time,  and  form  bad  habits 
of  study. 


48  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

before  entering  school,  they  have  heard  of  the  earth 
as  a  big  ball.  The  Robinson  Crusoe  story  in  second 
grade  carries  them  across  oceans  and  into  new  regions. 
The  "  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  read  in  third  grade,  is  an 
effort,  in  story  form,  to  realize  some  of  the  characteris- 
tic features  of  the  whole  big  earth.  Many  of  the 
myths,  traditions,  and  Bible  stories  lead  children  to 
distant  portions  of  the  earth.  Finally  geographical 
study  in  every  grade  must  be  both  analytic  and 
synthetic.  It  must  begin  at  home  and  work  outward 
gradually,  and  it  must  also  grasp  the  earth  as  a  whole 
and  begin  to  analyze  into  parts.  In  our  fourth-grade 
plan  we  shall  attempt  to  show  that  the  fundamental 
movement  should  be  from  the  home  outward ;  but  it 
will  be  necessary,  at  intervals  throughout  our  prog- 
ress, to  take  broad  surveys  of  the  earth  as  a  whole, 
of  continents,  oceans,  and  large  areas.  Such  broad 
surveys  are  necessary  to  keep  our  bearings  and  to 
prevent  a  blind  movement  into  unknown  regions. 

The  study  of  primitive  life  seems  appropriate  to 
children  in  the  third  grade.  It  deals  with  the  simple 
modes  of  life  and  industry  among  early  peoples,  or 
among  races  which  remain  in  the  primitive  state  of 
culture.  These  stories  of  primitive  life  are  large 
object  lessons  in  which  the  scenery  of  simple-minded 
men  in  contact  with  nature  is  brought  out. 

In  our  own  continent  we  have  several  illustrations  of 
this  crude  life  of  the  early  races,  in  the  Indians  of  the 
plain,  in  the  Zuni  villages  of  the  Southwest,  and  in  the 


HOME-GEOGRAPHY  EXCURSIONS  49 

Eskimo  homes  of  the  North.  A  description  of  their 
houses,  domestic  utensils,  food  and  modes  of  prepar- 
ing it,  clothing  and  how  made,  hunting,  fishing,  agri- 
culture, and  family  life,  their  use  of  domesticated  and 
wild  animals,  fruits,  plants,  —  all  these  are  simple 
and  typical  of  fundamental  arts. 

The  reproduction  of  these  arts  in  pictures,  models, 
and  material  constructions,  the  use  of  the  mortar  and 
pestle,  the  simple  loom  for  cloth-making,  the  prepar- 
ing of  foods,  the  making  of  houses  or  tents,  of  weapons 
and  common  tools,  furnish  the  children  with  appro- 
priate and  interesting  manual  activities. 

The  primitive  life  of  Europe  and  Asia  has  been 
made  also  the  basis  of  such  studies  among  children, 
as  that  of  the  patriarchal  times,  of  the  Persians, 
Egyptians,  and  Greeks.  The  primitive  arts  and  in- 
dustries of  these  early  races  have  been  employed  as 
an  introduction  to  history  and  industry. 

A  sort  of  alphabet  of  this  early  life  is  given  in 
"Seven  Little  Sisters."  This  book  can  be  used  to 
good  advantage  in  the  third  grade  (winter  term)  to 
introduce  children  to  some  of  the  chief  countries  of 
the  world,  to  the  people  who  inhabit  them,  and 
to  those  beginnings  of  racial  life  in  the  family  and 
to  common  occupations  which  form  the  basis  of 
society. 


CHAPTER  IV 

GEOGRAPHY     OF    FIFTH    AND    SIXTH    GRADES  —  TYPE 
STUDIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  —  ILLUSTRATIONS 

THE  lessons  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  are  mainly 
devoted  to  a  study  of  the  United  States  and  North 
America.  In  addition  to  this  the  historical  stories 
relating  to  Europe  call  for  the  explanation  of  a 
number  of  large  and  important  geographical  topics, 
while  mathematical  geography  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixth  grade  brings  into  prominence  some  of  those 
more  difficult  problems  of  the  earth's  motions,  the 
changing  seasons,  latitude  and  longitude,  which  need 
to  be  clearly  mastered. 

The  importance  of  the  full  study  of  the  United 
States  and  of  North  America  as  a  whole  at  this  stage 
of  the  course  needs  to  be  clearly  demonstrated.  It  is 
the  second  of  the  four  great  stages  in  geographical 
study. 

i.  The  first  reason  that  may  be  assigned  for  this 
emphasis  of  the  United  States  is  that  it  is  the  one 
country  above  all  that  we  need  to  thoroughly  under- 
stand. We  shall  have  more  dealings  with  it  in  all 
sorts  of  ways  than  with  all  the  other  countries  com- 


GEOGRAPHY   OF  FIFTH   AND   SIXTH   GRADES        5 1 

bined,  and  these  dealings  have  to  do  with  the  essen< 
tial  labors  and  pleasures  of  life.  An  understanding 
of  the  physical  and  social  conditions  that  surround  us 
in  America  is  fundamental  to  any  intelligent  and 
practical  appreciation  of  our  duties  and  opportunities 
as  citizens  of  the  world. 

2.  Again  the  United  States  is  not  a   small   and 
secluded   corner  of   the    world,  where   only   a  few 
things  come  to  light.     We  are  almost  in  the  centre 
of  the  highways  of  the  world,  and  there  is  displayed 
about  us  a  great  profusion  of  the  most   instructive 
and  delectable  geographical  topics.     Our  wide-spread- 
ing plains  and  forests,  our  canals  and  rivers,  moun- 
tains and   lakes,  our  varieties   of  climate,  coast-line 
and  products,  our  cities,  and  teeming  industrial  life, 
furnish  an  almost  bewildering  variety  of  great  geo- 
graphic object  lessons. 

3.  The   topics  already  treated  in  connection  with 
home  geography  are  especially  adapted  to  introduce 
the  children  to  the  larger  subjects  of  American  geog- 
raphy.   The  conversations  of  the  home,  the  incidental 
mention  of  cities,  rivers,  mountains,  and  states  not 
far  distant  have  partly  lifted  the  veil  from  the  great 
world  abroad  and  have  aroused  the  active  curiosity  of 
the  children.     Before  the  children  of  New  England 
proceed  to  a  full  and  definite  study  of  topics  on  Europe, 
Africa,  and  South  America  they  should  have  their 
curiosity  satisfied  in  regard  to  the  Maine  woods  and 
lakes,  Boston  and  its  famous  buildings  and  harbor,  the 


52  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Hoosac  Tunnel,  the  oyster-beds  of  Long  Island,  the 
granite  quarries  and  maple-sugar  camps  of  Vermont, 
the  big  mills  at  Lowell  and  Fall  River,  the  White 
Mountains,  and  Lake  Memphremagog.  This  involves 
a  natural  pedagogic  movement,  and  hardly  needs  a 
further  argument. 

4.  We  wish  to  understand  the  chief  physical  objects 
and  industrial  processes  as  springing  out  of  the  condi- 
tions and  environment  of  American  life.  This  must 
be  based  upon  a  continuous  journey  from  the  home 
outward,  building  as  much  as  possible  upon  experience. 

We  are  undertaking  the  serious  problem  of  under- 
standing industrial  and  social  life  as  influenced  by 
physical  surroundings.  If  we  were  merely  learning 
the  names  of  cities,  rivers,  mountains,  etc.,  we  might 
as  well  begin  with  England  or  South  America.  But 
we  are  chiefly  concerned  to  probe  beneath  the  surface 
and  get  at  the  meaning  of  a  few  of  the  more  impor- 
tant geographical  names.  This  makes  us,  therefore, 
much  more  cautious  in  our  selection  of  topics  at  the 
moment  of  leaping  from  the  home  into  the  big  world 
beyond.  By  a  full  and  accurate  description  of  a  few 
large  American  topics,  closely  related  in  important 
ways  to  home  topics  previously  worked  out/we  hope  to 
bridge  over  this  gap  between  the  home  and  the  lands 
just  across  the  border.  Let  us  not  be  in  haste  to  get 
into  Africa  or  Australia  if  we  can  only  plant  our  feet 
firmly  in  American  soil.  In  the  end  we  shall  the 
better  understand  Africa  and  the  islands  of  the  sea. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       53 

5.  One  advantage  of  first  ploughing  our  own  fields, 
climbing  our  own  mountains,  and  investing  in  our  own 
factories,  is  that  America  is  generous  in  simple  geo- 
graphical lessons ;  she  throws  out  before  our  eyes,  with 
a  liberal  hand,  a  few  large,  simple  topics.  Our  corn  and 
wheat  fields  are  broad  and  many  acred  and  their  prod- 
ucts bulky,  our  forests  and  lumber-yards  are  almost 
monstrous,  our  cattle-ranches  are  big  enough  for  coun- 
ties, our  cotton-fields  expand  broadly  under  the 
Southern  skies,  and  a  bale  of  cotton  can  be  seen  a 
mile  away.  The  Great  Lakes,  Niagara  Falls,  Colo- 
rado Canyon,  Yosemite  Valley,  and  the  Mississippi 
River  are  big  and  simple.  Our  traffic  routes  by  land 
and  water  are  huge,  continental ;  our  manufactures 
are  largely  of  the  coarse,  crude  kind.  Even  some  of 
our  large  cities  are  centres  of  trade  for  a  very  few 
bulky  staples,  as  with  Kansas  City,  Minneapolis,  and 
others.  Mere  bigness  is  not  a  thing  to  boast  of,  but 
when  combined  with  simplicity  it  is  very  suggestive 
to  the  teacher  of  geography. 

In  selecting  a  series  of  topics  for  the  fifth  grade  we 
may  show  a  jealous  preference  for  these  giantlike 
topics  of  our  American  world. 

Moreover,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grade  history  lessons 
(dealing  with  early  exploration  and  settlement)  we  are 
compelled  to  keep  a  sharp  eye  upon  the  strong  physi- 
cal and  climatic  surroundings  of  the  settlers.  The 
term  "  physiography  "  is  hardly  strong  enough  to  express 
the  biting  reality  of  physical  surroundings  in  pioneer 


54  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

life.  Nowhere  else  does  physical  geography  so 
uncover  its  crude  strength.  Many  of  the  pioneer 
stories,  like  those  of  Fremont,  De  Soto,  Hudson, 
La  Salle,  Lewis  and  Clark,  Robertson,  and  others,  are 
unrivalled  for  the  sharpness  of  their  geographical  im- 
pressions. A  number  of  large  geographic  topics  of  a 
pronounced  physiographic  character  (suggested  by 
the  history  stories)  should  be  worked  over  in  these 
grades,  such,  for  example,  as  the  Columbia  River,  the 
trade  route  to  India,  a  trip  down  the  Ohio  or  Missis- 
sippi, the  Equatorial  Current,  trade-winds,  and  Gulf 
Stream,  and  others.  This  close  connection  of  history 
with  geography  is  valuable  also  because  it  brings  out 
the  marked  physical  features  of  the  country  in  their 
simplest  relations  to  men. 

In  the  sixth  grade  some  of  the  more  complex  topics 
of  American  trade,  manufacture,  and  government  may 
be  handled,  and  difficult  ideas  of  mathematical  geog- 
raphy worked  out.  Such  large  and  complex  units 
of  study  as  the  Rocky  Mountain  system,  the  entire 
Mississippi  Valley,  the  whole  Appalachian  highlands, 
and  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  physiography  of  North 
America  should  be  reserved  for  the  latter  half  of  the 
sixth  grade.  This  effort  to  build  up  a  well-graded 
series  of  geographic  topics  through  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  grades  (confined  chiefly  but  not  wholly  to 
North  America)  is  deserving  of  the  serious  study 
of  teachers.  The  great  variety  of  conditions  in  this 
country,  from  the  simplest  pastoral  life  of  the  plains 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       55 

with  its  sparse  population  to  the  thickly  peopled  manu- 
facturing districts  and  cities  of  the  East,  displays  a 
full  range  of  subjects  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

Despite  this  early  preference  for  America,  an  exam- 
ination of  the  topics  selected  for  the  course  of  study 
for  these  grades  will  bring  to  light  a  goodly  number 
dealing  with  Europe  and  the  world-whole.  The 
topics  suggested  by  the  European  history  stories,  and 
by  the  world  navigators,  also  in  connection  with  math- 
ematical geography,  are  quite  sufficient  to  bring  many 
other  lands  and  the  world-whole  before  the  minds  of 
the  children. 

In  order  to  bring  simplicity  and  order  into  the  vast 
multitude  and  variety  of  facts,  furnished  by  the  geog- 
raphy of  North  America,  we  need  to  grasp  clearly 

the  significance  pf_  i-yrjpg      A  single  leaf  on  a  hard- 

^"•" •«»«P«P— •— — •• 

maple  tree  is  so  much  like  all  other  hard-maple  leaves 
that  one  may  name  it  at  a  glance.  If  a  stranger  to 
the  hard-maple  should  notice  sharply  a  single  typical 
hard-maple  leaf,  he  would  be  able  to  recognize  nearly 
all  others.  In  the  same  way  Mount  Shasta  as  a  typi- 
cal volcano,  if  well  understood  in  its  structure  and 
history,  is  able  to  explain  nearly  all  volcanic  mountains. 
The  same  truth  applies  to  most  geographical  objects. 
The  number  of  classes  of  geographical  objects  is  not 
very  great,  while  the  number  of  individuals  in  each 
class  is  legion.  If  we  can  convince  ourselves  that 
the  thorough  mastery  of  a  relatively  small  number  of 
important  type  objects  goes  a  long  way  toward  the 


5<5  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

mastery  of  the  whole  wide  and  varied  field  of  geog 
raphy,  we  may  find  it  an  excellent  means  of  unbur- 
dening the  mind  and  of  subjugating  the  world  to  our 
thought.  Those  persons  who  thoughtlessly  gorge 
the  memory  with  geographic  names  and  facts  are  like 
children  collecting  shells  by  the  seaside.  They  fill 
their  baskets,  pockets,  and  hands  with  specimens  in 
their  zeal  for  collecting  and  then,  being  overloaded, 
begin  to  drop  them.  In  sorting  them  out  later  at 
home,  they  find  only  a  few  kinds  and,  after  selecting 

e  best,  they  soon  cast  the  others  aside. 

In  devising  a  plan  for  geographical  study  at  least 
two  important  problems  must  be  met :  — 

1.  The  selection  of  a  few  important  representative 
ideas  out  of  the  countless  multitude  of  facts. 

2.  A   method  of  approach  to  these   ideas  which 
shall  instruct  and  interest  the  children. 

The  quantity  of^fieographJQal  knowledge  is  practi- 
cally infinite,  a  hundred  times  what  any  child  can  mas- 
ter. A  wise  choice  of  matter  is,  therefore,  imperative./ 

A  proper  study  of  types  offers,  we  believe,  a  clear 
solution  of  both  these  problems. 

If  not  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  topics  are  taken 
up  during  the  year,  from  one  and  one-half  to  two 
weeks  can  be  spent  upon  each  topic.  This  is  time 
sufficient  to  give  to  each  important  subject  a  reason- 
ably exhaustive  discussion. 

Now,  what  are  the.  flrjvani;a{res_of  such  a  discussion 
of  really  important  types? 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       57 

1.  A  clear  and  detailed  comprehension  of  a  typical 
object  in  geography  (however  small  this  object  may 
be)  is  the  key  to  a  larg;e  area  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge.     This   type,   once    clearly   perceived,   is    the 
interpreter  of  very  many  similar  objects.     A_single 
coal  mine  seen  in  itself   and   in  its  relations  to  the 
busy  world  is  an  almost  perfect  type  of  thousands  of 
coal  mines,  to  say  nothing  of  other  mines.     A  single 
river  or  mountain,    pictured   out  in   its   variety   of 
relations,  is  a  sure  exemplar  of  many  others  of  the 
same  kind.     It  is  to  be  remembered  that  we  should 
always   select  the   best   types  for   full  study.     The 
study  of  a  type  is.  therefore,  a  short  avenue,  to  the 
interpretation  of  a  large  body  of  knowledge. 

2.  A  type  subject  is  the  basis  of  a  series  of  com- 
parisons.    The  representative   or   type   idea  which 
it  illustrates  appears  again  and  again  in  a  multitude 
of  kindred  objects.     A  full  graphic  account  of  the 
Illinois  River  from  its  source  to  its  mouth  is  found, 
by  later  comparisons,  to  be  a  pretty  fair  description 
of  a  score  of  other  rivers  in  the  United  States.     In 
the  same  way  the_lQgging  industry  in  one  camf>  and 
along   one  stream  is  representative   of   such  camps 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  pine  forests. 

If,  therefore,  we  are  careful  to  select  good  types 
and  then,  after  treating  them  fully,  to  make  sufficient 
comparisons  to  show  the  modifications  of  the  type  in 
different  localities,  we  shall  gain  speedily  an  instruc- 
tive insight  into  large  areas  of  geographical  knowl- 


58  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

edge.  The  original  type  subject  becomes  then  a 
Standard  of  measurement  for  the  multitude  of  similar 
subjects  that  are  sure  to  come  up.  Such  a  clear  type 
is  an  interpreter  and  a  test  of  each  kindred  subject 
the  moment  it  appears.  The  extension  of  a  typical 
idea  by  means  of  comparisons  is  a  good  opportunity 
for  the  children  to  think  and  to  reason  for  them- 
selves; if  it  is  a  study  of  rivers,  to  examine  the  map 
and  to  interpret  the  slopes  and  structure,  commerce 
and  cities. 

Comparisons  on  the  basis  of  fully  developed  types 
are  the  best  means  of  review.  Reviews  by  means  of 
comparing  old  with  new  topics  are  a  vigorous  and 
stimulating  exercise.  They  throw  new  light  on  the 
old  facts ;  they  interpret  the  new.  They  group  and 
consolidate  geographical  topics  and  develop  the 
power  to  classify  and  organize  knowledge. 

3.  The  number  of  type  studies  being  few,  much 
time  is  available  for  a  lively,  descriptive,  and  interest- 
ing investigation  into  details.  Pictures  and  instruc- 
f^^'  n  •"  •. 

tive  particulars  are  abundantly  supplied.  The  work 
becomes  very  realistic  and,  as  we  say,  concrete. 
Herein  is  found  the  very  life  of  all  instruction.  Our 
text-books  are  usually  stripped  bare  of  this  foliage 
and  fruit  of  the  tree,  and  a  good  teacher,  from  her 
own  experience  and  from  geographical  readers,  etc., 
should  manage  to  supply  it. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  a  full  treatment  of  a 
topic  like  the  pineries  or  the  coal  mine,  is  thoroughly 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH   GRADES       59 

instructive  and  interesting  to  children.  It  satisfies  a 
true  thirst  for  knowledge.  It  explains  a  hundred  facts 
they  are  anxious  to  know  about.  Instead  of  giving 
them  a  few  barren  statements  to  memorize,  it  responds 
to  a  child's  inquiries  with  a  liberal  supply  of  nourish- 
ing and  palatable  information. 

Tthis  detailed  study  of  a  type  keeps  us  close  to  the 
objects  and  realities  of  the  workaday  world.  We  are 
not  lost  in  general  statements  and  abstractions,  but 
are  bumping  constantly  against  the  varied  facts  of 
experience.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  powerful  real- 
ism in  this  kind  of  study  which  gives  a  healthy  tonic 
effect.  Thejworst  criticism  that  can  be  j>rought_tp 
bear  upon  our  present  teaching^of  .geography  is.  that 
it  is  abstract  and  unreal.  It  is  formal  and  dry.  We 
are  not  to  forget,  however,  that,  while  such  a  type  is 
very  real  and  concrete,  it  contains  a  general  truth  of 
wide  application.  This  general  nature  of  the  type, 
and  the  extent  of  its  application,  should  be  seen  be- 
fore the  discussion  is  dropped.  Skill  in  teaching 
nearly  every  subject  depends  upon  the  teacher's 
power  to  show  the  relation  between  the  general 
truths  of  a  subject  and  its  particular  objects  and 
facts.  The  type  is  the  true  mediator  between  these 
two  extremes. 

4.   The  study  of  causes  and  causal  relations. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  children  are  interested 
in  such  a  study  of  a  type  is,  that  it  is,  at  every  step, 
a  study  of  causes.  Children  are_jpj£gn  concerned 


6O  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

about  facts,  but  they  are  still  more  inquisitive  about 
causes.  Unless  their  schooling  has  been  very  bad, 
they  are  strongly  inclined  to  reason  out  the  causal 
relations.  In  the  study  of  the  pineries,  for  example, 
every  step  in  the  process  of  lumbering  from  the  skid- 
ding of  the  logs  in  the  forest  to  the  unloading  of 
lumber  on  the  Western  prairies  is  an  adaptation  of 
labor,  skill,  and  machinery  to  the  physical  conditions 
imposed  by  surface,  climate,  rivers,  prairies,  etc.,  3 
tracing  of  cause  and  effect.  It  is  a  fine  thing  foi 
children  to  see  this  application  of  labor  and  skill  and 
to  have  their  interest  strongly  awakened  in  many 
forms  of  human  endeavor.  We  should  realize,  how- 
ever, that  causal  relations  cannot  be  clearly  seen 
unless  a  topic  is  treated  with  fulness.  Our  geographies 
give  us  a  few  barren,  meagre  facts,  too  much  stripped 
of  detail  to  show  their  relations.  By  means  of  the 
more  exhaustive  treatment  of  a  typical  subject,  we 
see  it  in  its  varied  causal  relations,  we  perceive  the 
modifying  or  controlling  influences  which  determine 
its  character.  In  each  of  the  examples  given,  Illinois 
River,  coal  mine,  prairies,  pineries,  etc.,  the  links 
which  connect  different  topics  together  are  welded  by 
a  perception  of  causal  relations.  But  what  is  true  of 
these  topics  is  true  of  every  typical  subject  which  is 
delineated  with  sufficient  fulness  to  reveal  the  true 
causal  sequences.  This  is  the  point  at  which  outlines 
or  brief  epitomes  utterly  fail.  They  may  state  impor- 
tant facts,  but  they  cannot  reveal  the  causal  nexus. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH   GRADES       6l 

It  is  necessary  to  enter  upon  the  deeper  details  in 
order  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  working  causes. 

But  this  more  penetrating  study  into  a  topic  brings 
us  in  close  contact  with  other  branches  of  knowledge, 
and  so  we  come  to  see  the  importance  of  the  relations 
of  geography  to  other  studies.  A  full  investigation 
of  a  coal  mine,  for  example,  shows  plainly  how  the 
roots  of  geography  are  intertwined  with  the  roots  of 
other  sciences.  Children  are  almost  certain  to  ask 
how  coal  came  to  be  stored  in  the  earth,  a  question 
which  leads  back  into  the  Mstory  of  the  earth's  crust, 
into  atmospheric  and  climatic  conditions,  into  plant 
life  and  to  great  physical  and  chemical  changes.  The 
use  of  powder  and  other  explosive  materials  in  blast- 
ing, the  collection  and  explosion  of  gases  in  mines, 
the  safety-lamp  and  mine  ventilation,  the  steam- 
engines,  pumps,  and  ventilating-fans,  the  combustion 
of  coal,  the  production  of  coal-gas,  etc.,  are  topics 
that  belong  to  physics,  chemistry,  and  practical 
mechanics.  So  many  and  intimate  are  the  linkings 
with  other  studies  that  the  chief  danger  of  such  an 
exhaustive  treatment  of  a  coal  mine  is  that  both 
teacher  and  class  may  be  switched  off  the  main  geo- 
graphical track,  and  get  lost  in  the  history  of  geologi- 
cal changes,  in  the  chemical  composition  of  coal,  in  the 
physics  and  chemistry  of  the  atmosphere  and  of 
explosives  or  in  some  other  purely  scientific  topic. 
The  only  safety  is  to  grasp  firmly  the  main  outlines 
of  the  geographical  subject  and  to  treat  all  these 


62  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

other  sciences,  however  intimate,  as  tributary  and  in 
cidental.  So  far  as  they  directly  explain  geographi- 
cal facts  they  should  be  drawn  upon. 

To  further  illustrate  the  significance  of  these  causal 
relations  of  geographical  topics  to  each  other,  and  to 
the  natural  sciences,  suppose  we  give  a  full  descrip- 
tion to  Pikes  Peak  and  vicinity,  including  the  vale  of 
Manitou,  the  mineral  springs,  the  Garden  of  the  Gods, 
Cheyenne  Canyon  and  Falls,  the  caves,  the  trail  to  the 
peak,  the  views  of  distant  mountains,  the  snow-line, 
the  rock-strewn  summit,  the  vegetation,  winds,  air- 
pressure,  the  stratified  and  igneous  rocks,  the  gorges 
and  mountain  torrents,  the  surrounding  mountain 
groups,  the  railroad  to  the  summit,  the  peak  in  winter, 
etc.  Such  a  particularized  study  of  a  geographical  type 
not  only  brings  out  a  closely  related  body  of  repre- 
sentative geographical  ideas,  causally  bound  together, 
but  it  plunges  us  deep  among  the  roots  of  the  other 
sciences  upon  which  geography  rests,  e.g.  geologic 
strata  and  changes,  the  physics  of  air-pressure,  vegeta- 
tion, and  animal  life  in  mountain  districts  ;  the  chemis- 
try of  mineral  waters,  railroad-engineering  in  mountain 
canyons ;  winds,  snows,  and  meteorology,  erosion  by 
ice  and  water.  In  the  midst  of  such  a  region  nature 
also  shows  herself  beautiful  and  refreshing,  or  grand 
and  rugged  for  the  culture  of  the  aesthetic  and  religious 
sense.  What  does  the  usual  study  of  geography  give 
us  to  treasure  up  from  such  a  region  ?  Ought  not  a 
detailed  and  instructive  description  of  such  a  type, 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH   GRADES       63 

aided  by  pictures,  give  us  a  score  of  attractive  views 
into  the  very  workshop  of  nature  ?  From  the  rock- 
strewn  summit  of  Pikes  Peak  to  the  health-giving 
springs  that  gush  from  its  roots  at  Manitou,  this 
whole  region  is  bathed  in  science  as  in  sunlight. 
Yet  our  purpose  is  not  to  teach  natural  science,  but 
geography,  as  causally  based  upon  natural  science. 

True  insight  into  any  topic,  and  appreciation  of  its 
value,  are  based  chiefly  upon  the  causal  chains  which 
link  it  to  other  kinds  of  knowledge. 

5.  After  the  full  description  of  a  topic,  such,  for 
example,  as  a  coal  mine  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  study 
of  its  important  relation  to  railroads,  factories,  etc.,  it 
is  compared  with  other  coal  mines  along  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  in  Illinois,  and  other  parts  of  the  United 
States  ;  the  great  coal  fields  are  located  on  the  map, 
and  a  few  of  the  chief  shipping-points  for  coal,  as  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis,  are  located.  We  may  even  compare  later 
the  whole  coal  production  of  the  United  States  with 
that  of  England  and  Germany  and  get  some  grasp  of 
its  vast  importance  to  the  whole  country  and  the 
world.  In  this  manner  a_type  study  expands  grad- 
ually to  embrace  a  large  collection  of  geographical 
fac^s.  But  they  are  all  well  arranged  around  a  single 
centre  of  thought.  This  is  a  marked  improvement 
over  the  old  plan  in  geographies  of  learning  the  scat- 
tered facts  about  coal  and  coal  production  in  connec- 
tion with  a  dozen  or  more  different  states  at  different 


64  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

times,  months  apart,  and  never  attempting  to  bring 
them  together  as  one  connected  body  of  facts.  The 
practice  of  heaping  up  a  miscellaneous  quantity  of 
facts  in  connection  with  California  or  Connecticut  is 
essentially  bad  because  there  is  no  real  centre  of 
thought,  no  unity  or  connection  between  the  facts. 
So  far  as  a  state  has  a  political  unity  it  should  be 
often  used  to  designate  a  district  of  country  and  to 
some  extent  a  physical  and  climatic  character,  but  the 
great  commercial  and  physiographic  units  of  study  pay 
very  little  heed  to  state  boundaries. 

This  movement  from  home  outward  on  the  stepping, 
stones  of  great  typical  subjects  is  in  strong  contrast 
to  the  custom  of  memorizing  mere  facts  more  or  less 
fragmentary  and  disconnected.  The  chief  merits  of 
the  type  studies  are,  first,  that  they  deal  in  full 
measure  with  concrete  and  interesting  details,  and, 
second,  that  they  lead  to  strong,  clear  geographical 
concepts.  The  fact-cramming  process  is  neither  in- 
structive by  means  of  concrete  pictures  nor  rich  in 
significant  concepts.  It  is  essentially  empty  and  bar- 
ren. Like  a  dead  tree  stretching  its  naked  and  deso- 
late arms  toward  the  sky,  such  an  instruction  has 
neither  leaves  nor  fruit  to  clothe  it  with  beauty  nor  a 
life-giving  sap  to  attest  its  vitality. 

6.  To  what  extent  does  the  series  of  types,  which 
we  have  outlined,  cover  the  whole  field  of  geographi- 
cal studies  for  these  grades  ?  Only  a  few  topics  are 
fully  treated,  and  many  important  facts  may  appear 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       6$ 

to  be  neglected.  How  far  will  the  product  of  such  a 
year's  study  be  complete  and  systematic  rather  than 
fragmentary  and  disconnected?  It  is  not  claimed 
that  the  treatment  of  single  types  will  give  fulness 
and  completeness  to  all  these  studies  but  only  that 
the  series  of  types  furnishes  a  safe  central  line  of 
operations.  To  supplement  and  complete_the  work 
with  types  we  shall  iieed  map  studies  and  map  draw- 
ings, comprehensive_surveys.  reviewsLarid  drills^  and 
abundant  use  of  text-books_andjvyall  maps.  The  for- 
mation of  important  and  significant  series  of  geograph- 
ical objects  will  bind  together  the  larger  units  as  well 
as  the  smaller.  For  example,  the  great  commercial 
routes  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  east  to  west, 
and  from  north  to  south,  the  climatic  zones,  the  large 
river  valleys  and  mountain-chains  will  bind  together 
the  separate  facts  into  larger  series  and  complexes. 

But  the  type  studies  themselves^if followed  Qut,  will 
lead  to  an  organic  building  up  of  large  geographical 
groups  and  sequences.  The  study  of  Pikes  Peak  and 
the  neighboring  mountain  cluster,  when  compared 
with  Gray's,  Fremont's,  and  the  Spanish  peaks,  leads 
on  to  a  knowledge  of  the  main  ridge  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  which  they  are  striking  parts.  The 
study  of  Lake  Superior  leads  to  an  understanding  of 
the  series  of  great  lakes  and  of  this  important  line  of 
water  traffic  between  the  East  and  West.  The  de- 
scription of  the  hardwood  forests  of  Indiana  is  incom- 
plete till  the  whole  extensive  Ohio  Valley,  with  the 


66  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

tributary  streams,  is  drawn  in.  The  very  idea  of  a 
type  study  involves  the  necessity  of  reaching  out  so 
as  to  embrace  a  large  number  of  kindred  objects  into 
one  connected  series  or  group.  If  we  have  succeeded 
in  selecting  the  important  types  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  a  proper  comparison  and  extension  of  these 
types  will  draw  in  most  of  the  cities,  rivers,  lakes, 
mountains,  etc.,  that  deserve  a  child's  attention.  If 
any  are  left  out,  it  is  because  they  are  not  important 
or  characteristic  enough  to  demand  notice.  We  are 
disposed  to  omit  all  geographical  names  which  have 
nothing  in  particular  to  recommend  them,  nothing 
which  they  help  to  illustrate  or  explain.  A  great 
many  geographical  objects  are  of  local  importance,  of 
which  a  child,  for  the  present,  can  afford  to  remain 
entirely  ignorant. 

Our  further  plan  is  to  follow  in  fifth  and  sixth 
grades  a  series  of  type  studies  through  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  States,  British  America,  and  Mexico,  clos- 
ing the  work  with  a  conclusive  survey  of  North 
America  as  a  whole.  North  America  then  becomes 
our  type  of  a  continent  with  which  we  may  set  out  to 
measure  more  accurately  the  other  continents  of  the 
world.  Our  general  movement  is  toward  ever  larger 
and  more  complex  wholes.  It  is,  in  the  main, 
synthetic. 

7.  In  following  the  series  of  type  studies  for  North 
America  we  are  not  neglecting  physical  geography, 
though  we  get  at  it  from  a  somewhat  different 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  GRADES        6; 

approach.  Many  of  the  great  types  are  strongly 
physiographic,  while  the  immediate  bearings  upon 
man's  interests  are  included.  Our  purpose  is  to 
bring  physiographic  facts  into  such  close  relation  to 
human  needs  as  to  make  both  of  them  tangible,  real- 
istic, and  often  picturesque.  The  pioneer  history 
stories  add  greatly  to  the  emphasis  given  to  topog- 
raphy, climate,  etc. 

A  whole  continent  does  not  seem  to  us  a  suitable 
subject  for  detailed  treatment  in  fourth  grade.  In 
spite  of  sand-building  and  modelling  it  remains  largely 
a  formal  and  barren  subject.  Short  surveys  of  the 
whole  world  and  a  somewhat  fuller  treatment  of  North 
America  may  well  preface  the  series  of  typical  studies 
we  have  outlined.  But  they  should  be  brief  and  pre- 
liminary, merely  a  bird's-eye  view.  By  a  constant 
use  of  wall  maps  of  the  United  States  and  of  North 
America,  by  means  of  the  broader  comparisons  and 
surveys  which  close  up  the  treatment  of  every  typical 
subject,  we  are  steadily  marching  toward  a  clear  and 
definite  understanding  of  the  great  physical  features 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  of  North  America.  The 
characteristic  regions  of  production  are  brought  out 
with  great  distinctness,  and  when  we  finally  reach  the 
point  where  the  Mississippi  Valley  as  a  whole  can  be 
surveyed,  how  rich  and  varied  do  its  resources  appear ! 
What  variety  of  surface,  landscape,  and  climate  !  How 
closely  connected  by  water  and  rail !  The  whole  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  finally  becomes  the  type  of  a  mighty 


68  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

river  basin,  with  which  the  largest  and  most  fruitful 
river  basins  of  the  world  may  be  later  compared. 

Finally,  we  may  say  a  word  of  the  effect  of  this  more 
deliberate  and  thoroughgoing  study  of  North  Amer- 
ica upon  the  work  with  Europe  and  the  other  conti- 
nents in  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  To  approach 
Europe  and  Asia  with  a  rich  and  in  part  well-organized 
fund  of  knowledge  of  our  own  country  is  altogether  de- 
sirable. We  shall  not  find  many  things  in  Europe  that 
are  wholly  new  to  us,  and  a  quick  intelligent  eye  will 
speedily  discern  how  much  like  America  Europe  is. 
Their  food  and  clothes,  their  governments  and  cities, 
their  mountains  and  rivers,  their  languages  and 
churches,  their  homes  and  schools  are  very  much  like 
ours.  In  some  respects  they  are  better  off,  in  others 
worse.  To  keep  the  minds  of  children  alert  and  active 
in  comparing  these  and  other  things  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  Atlantic  opens  one  of  the  most  hopeful  oppor- 
tunities for  doing  thoughtful,  rational  work. 

EXAMPLE  OF  THE  TREATMENT  OF  A  TYPE 

NIAGARA  FALLS  AND  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES 

Niagara  Falls  lie  midway  between  Lake  Ontario  and 
Lake  Erie.  Lake  Erie  is  nearly  300  feet  higher 
above  the  sea-level  than  Lake  Ontario.  About 
six  miles  south  of  Lake  Ontario  the  level  plateau  in 
whose  basin  Lake  Erie  lies  drops  down  300  feet  to  the 
plain  which  borders  Lake  Ontario.  The  Niagara 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       /I 

falls  and  the  escarpment  is  a  most  interesting  scenic 
object.  An  electric  railway  descends  along  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  gorge  and,  passing  close  by  the  whirlpool 
rapids,  proceeds  along  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  till  it 
reaches  Lewiston  at  the  outlet  of  the  gorge.  Here 
the  Niagara  River  widens  into  a  lordly  stream,  deep 
and  broad,  as  it  courses  toward  Lake  Ontario.  An- 
other electric  railway  climbs  the  escarpment  on  the 
Canadian  side,  and  on  its  return  to  the  falls  gives  ex- 
cellent views  of  the  river  and  gorge  from  above. 

If  heavily  laden  grain  ships  start  from  Chicago  or 
Duluth,  how  far  can  they  proceed  down  the  Lakes 
before  stopping  to  unload  ?  If  it  were  not  for 
Niagara  Falls,  they  would  not  stop  at  Buffalo,  but 
pass  on  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  perhaps  down  the  St. 
Lawrence  on  their  way  to  Europe  or  New  York.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  all  the  Great  Lake  vessels,  moving 
eastward,  are  compelled  to  unload  their  cargoes  at 
Buffalo.  If  it  were  not  for  Niagara  Falls,  would  there 
be  any  need  of  an  Erie  Canal  ?  or  a  Welland  Canal? 
Would  there  be  any  great  city  at  Buffalo  ?  If  large 
vessels  could  pass  freely  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Ontario,  what  part  of  the  Erie  Canal  would  still  be  ser- 
viceable ?  There  is  at  present  a  branch  of  the  canal 
from  Oswego  to  the  main  canal  and  Albany.  In  this 
case,  what  sort  of  a  city  would  Oswego  be  ?  Perhaps 
the  main  body  of  commerce  would  go  down  the  St. 
Lawrence,  but  there  are  difficulties  in  the  navigation 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  such  as  the  rapids,  which  have 


72  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

made  canals  necessary,  the  short  season  of  navigation 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  so  far  to  the  north, 
and  the  fact  that  all  of  this  commerce  must  pass 
through  a  foreign  country.  The  probability  is,  there- 
fore, that  the  canal,  in  any  case,  would  extend  from 
Oswego  to  Albany. 

So  far  as  commerce  is  concerned,  Niagara  Falls 
are  an  enormous  obstruction,  making  necessary  the 
expenditure  of  many  millions  of  dollars  on  canals  and 
railways.  Moreover,  the  traffic  route  from  Chicago, 
Duluth,  and  the  Lake  cities  is  by  many  times  the 
most  important  traffic  route  in  America,  and  Niagara 
lies  at  its  centre,  obstructing  all  free  commercial 
intercourse.  The  vast  importance  of  this  trade  route 
may  be  seen  in  the  quantity  of  great  staple  products 
like  corn,  wheat,  and  packed  meats  which  are  shipped 
from  Chicago  and  the  other  Lake  cities  to  Buffalo, 
New  York,  and  Europe.  The  greatest  railroad  trunk 
lines  follow  this  route,  such  as  the  Michigan  Central, 
the  New  York  Central,  the  Nickel  Plate,  and  others. 

On  the  other  hand,  do  the  great  falls  perform  any 
service  to  man  to  compensate  for  this  inconvenience 
and  difficulty  ?  There  is  immense  water-power  from 
the  falls,  and  a  group  of  mills  on  the  east  side  for 
many  years  has  used  a  very  small  fraction  of  the 
water  for  moving  mill-wheels.  But  within  the  last 
few  years  engineers  have  constructed  great  water- 
wheels  near  the  falls  for  producing  water-power  and 
for  converting  this  power  into  electrical  force.  It  is 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       69 

River,  in  making  its  way  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Ontario,  must  leap  over  this  bluff  or  escarpment.  At 
the  present  time  the  falls  are  about  six  miles  back 
from  the  edge  of  the  escarpment.  A  stratum  of  lime- 
stone rocks  140  feet  thick  extends  from  the  edge  of 
this  escarpment  southward  and,  dipping  gradually, 
passes  under  Lake  Erie.  The  Niagara  River,  as  it 
flows  northward,  drops  over  this  ledge  of  limestone 
rocks  at  the  present  site  of  the  falls.  It  is  160  feet 
from  the  edge  of  the  cataract  to  the  level  of  the  river 
below.  The  remainder  of  the  300  feet  of  descent  is 
made  by  the  rapids  above  and  below  the  falls  and  by  the 
descent  of  the  river.  The  falls  on  the  American  side 
are  small  and,  in  fact,  constitute  a  part  of  the  east 
bank  of  the  river.  The  great  Horseshoe  Falls,  which 
lie  to  the  west  of  Goat  Island,  constitute  the  main 
part  of  the  falls.  Here  the  enormous  body  of  water 
tumbles  into  a  great  chasm  from  three  sides,  and  it  is 
here  that  the  main  action  of  the  water  in  grinding  out 
the  rocks  takes  place.  Above  the  falls  is  a  great  series 
of  limestone  ledges,  over  which  the  broad  river 
plunges,  forming  a  wilderness  of  waters,  as  seen  from 
the  Three  Sisters  Islands,  very  grand  and  impressive. 
In  fact,  the  view  up  the  river  from  the  Three  Sisters 
is  one  of  the  grandest  scenes  in  nature.  The  Horse- 
shoe Falls  can  be  best  appreciated  from  the  Maid  of 
the  Mist  as  it  sails  up  under  the  waters  from  below. 

Below    the    falls    is    the    deep,    narrow    gorge, 
with    its    precipitous   walls   nearly   300    feet   high, 


7O  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

through  the  narrow  bottom  of  which  gushes  the  swift 
river.  How  was  this  gorge  formed  ?  It  extends 
about  six  miles  to  the  edge  of  the  escarpment.  As 
the  water  tumbles  over  the  edge  of  the  falls,  it  de- 
scends into  the  river  200  feet  deep.  The  underlying 
rocks  beneath  the  limestone  ledge,  already  described, 
are  soft  shales  and  sandstone.  The  rushing  waters 
at  the  foot  of  the  falls  gradually  wash  out  great  caves 
in  the  softer  rock,  and  the  superincumbent  mass  of 
projecting  limestone  breaks  off  in  great  chunks  and 
tumbles  into  the  bottom  of  the  river.  In  the  centre 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  where  the  water  from  three 
sides  plunges  into  the  deep  caldron,  the  action  of  the 
water  is  so  powerful  as  to  grind  up  these  loose  rocks 
at  the  bottom  and  sweep  the  sand  down  the  river. 
On  the  edges  of  the  gorge,  where  the  action  of  the 
water  is  less  powerful,  the  broken  rocks  are  not 
ground  up,  and  form  a  sloping  side  or  talus  which  is 
found  on  both  sides  of  the  gorge  throughout  its 
course.  In  this  way  it  has  been  found  by  close  meas- 
urements that  the  falls  are  yearly  receding  toward  the 
south,  in  the  middle  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  at  the  rate 
of  from  four  to  six  feet  a  year.  During  the  present 
century,  the  measurements  have  been  quite  accu- 
rate, so  that  the  rate  of  recession  is  somewhat  defi- 
nitely known.  With  this  as  a  basis  efforts  have  been 
made  to  reckon  the  number  of  years  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  the  gorge,  but  the  estimates  have  varied 
from  6,000  to  30,000  years.  The  gorge  between  the 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       75 

of  dollars  have  been  established  at  the  western  edge 
of  the  falls,  and  the  recession  of  the  falls  would  ren- 
der them  useless.  To  prevent  this  a  heavy  frame- 
work of  wooden  chutes  has  been  built  and  heavily 
buttressed,  so  as  to  completely  cover  the  rocks  at  the 
falls  and  prevent  them  from  wearing  away,  thus  mak- 
ing the  falls  stationary.  But  the  old  scenic  beauty 
has  been  destroyed.  At  Rochester,  New  York, 
where  the  Genesee  River  plunges  over  the  escarp- 
ment toward  Lake  Ontario,  a  series  of  falls  and 
gorges  is  found  which  is  explained  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  Niagara  Falls.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  com- 
pare other  falls  in  North  America,  like  those  of  the 
upper  Missouri,  Yellowstone  Falls  in  the  park,  and 
the  falls  of  the  Columbia,  with  those  of  Niagara,  to 
see  if  similar  causes  are  operative.  Later,  in  the 
study  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  other  lands,  we  may 
compare  the  falls  of  the  Rhine,  of  the  Nile,  the  Zam- 
bezi, and  the  Congo  with  those  of  Niagara,  in  their 
effect  upon  navigation  and  traffic. 


CHAPTER  V 

EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE 

THE  third  great  centre  of  geographical  study  is 
Europe.  In  thus  selecting  the  smallest  of  the  great 
continents  as  the  centre  of  the  world's  geography,  we 
are  granting  a  large  influence  to  the  historical  or 
human  side  of  geography.  Europe  is  undoubtedly 
the  centre  from  which  all  exploration  and  conquest 
of  the  world,  in  the  last  four  hundred  years  and 
more,  have  gone  out.  From  Europe  have  sprung 
the  hardy  and  intelligent  races  that  have  had  the 
energy  to  explore  and  master  the  world.  Since  we 
are  studying  the  earth  as  related  to  man,  we  can 
hardly  escape  from  this  powerful  historical  drift. 

After  completing  the  previous  studies  of  North 
America,  there  lies  before  us  the  choice  of  a  move- 
ment to  South  America  and  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere, or  to  the  East  and  to  Europe.  We  are  bound 
to  Europe  by  historical  and  commercial  relations 
and,  also,  by  bonds  of  language  and  kindred  which 
are  more  important  than  the  structural  resemblance 
between  North  and  South  America.  Not  only  is 
Europe  nearer  to  us  and  easier  to  reach,  but  the 
historical  and  literary  associations  between  North 

76 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  GRADES       73 

being  utilized  by  mills  and  factories  and  street-car 
lines  within  a  radius  of  twenty  miles  from  the  falls. 
So  great  is  the  amount  of  power  which  can  be  gener- 
ated at  the  falls  and  put  to  use  in  factories  and  shops 
that  it  is  expected  that  the  country  about  Niagara 
Falls  will  become,  in  time,  the  greatest  manufactur- 
ing centre  in  the  world.  Another  reason  for  these 
hopes  is  the  fact  that  raw  products  of  many  kinds  can 
be  shipped  to  this  point  at  little  expense. 

In  the  early  history  of  explorations  we  find  that 
Hennepin  and  La  Salle,  in  trying  to  navigate  the 
upper  lakes,  met  their  greatest  difficulties  at  Niagara 
Falls.  It  was  necessary  to  carry  a  heavy  forge  and 
tools  over  the  bluff  and  along  the  river  to  a  point  six 
or  seven  miles  above  the  falls,  where,  in  the  rigors  of 
a  severe  winter,  forest  trees  were  cut  down  and  a 
vessel  was  built  for  the  navigation  of  the  upper  lakes. 
It  was  called  the  Griffin  and  was  used  by  La  Salle 
and  his  party  in  their  first  trip  to  Mackinaw  and 
Green  Bay.  The  Columbus  caravels,  which  were 
objects  of  such  interest  at  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
were  taken  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  through 
the  Welland  Canal,  reaching  Chicago  by  way  of  the 
Lakes.  Some  of  the  smaller  whaleback  steamers  have 
made  the  trip  from  Duluth  through  the  locks  at  St. 
Marys  Canal,  the  Lakes,  and  the  Welland  Canal, 
down  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Liverpool. 

Geologists  have  been  anxious  to  determine  the 
number  of  centuries  since  the  Niagara  River  began  to 


74  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

cut  its  gorge.  In  this  way  they  would  be  able  to 
determine  the  length  of  time  since  the  glacial  period 
or  the  ice  age  in  North  America.  The  great  glacial 
sheet  gliding  down  from  the  north  at  one  time  filled 
Lake  Ontario  so  that  the  Niagara  River  could  find 
no  outlet  into  Lake  Ontario.  At  that  time  the 
upper  lakes  must  have  found  an  outlet  in  some  other 
direction.  The  old  channel  by  which  Lake  Michigan 
sent  its  waters  into  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  has 
been  found.  As  the  ice  receded  toward  the  north, 
and  the  waters  from  Lake  Erie  were  first  sent  via 
Niagara  over  the  escarpment  toward  Lake  Ontario, 
the  outlet  of  the  St.  Lawrence  was  still  obstructed  by 
ice.  In  those  days  the  outlet  to  Lake  Ontario  was 
by  way  of  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson,  and  the  old 
channel  has  been  found.  If  this  were  still  true,  it 
would  remove  some  of  the  difficulties  of  our 
navigation. 

If  we  compare  the  falls  of  Niagara,  its  gorge  and 
rapids,  with  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony  at  Minneapolis, 
we  shall  find  that  a  similar  gorge  extends  from  Min- 
neapolis down  the  Mississippi  about  five  miles  to  its 
junction  with  the  Minnesota.  But  this  gorge  is  only 
about  one-third  as  deep,  though  about  the  same  width 
as  the  Niagara  gorge.  An  examination  of  the  rock 
strata  at  St.  Anthony's  Falls  will  reveal  also  a  similar 
series  of  rocks,  hard  limestone  above  and  softer  rock 
beneath,  and  a  similar  recession  of  the  falls.  At 
Minneapolis,  however,  great  flour-mills  worth  millions 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE  79 

sand  years  and  more  is  of  far  greater  value  to  us  than 
that  of  any  other  continent  except  our  own,  and  is,  in 
fact,  a  part  of  our  own  earlier  life.  Our  ancestors,  in 
contact  with  the  physical  surroundings  of  Europe, 
left  there  a  record  of  many  memorable  events,  and 
these  historical  associations  greatly  intensify  the  in- 
terest in  geography. 

The  peculiar  national  character  and  customs  of 
each  of  the  great  nationalities  of  Europe  suggests 
a  remarkably  instructive  series  of  great  lessons. 
The  Germans,  for  example,  have  a  number  of  very 
interesting  traits :  they  love  outdoor  life  and  ex- 
cursions, the  whole  family  often  spending  an  after- 
noon upon  long  walks  to  the  riverside  or  to 
parks,  and  among  pleasant  gardens  and  scenes 
in  nature,  climbing  the  hillsides  or  roaming  the 
forests ;  the  school  classes  are  also  much  regaled 
with  such  outdoor  trips.  The  numerous,  and  often 
beautiful,  beer-gardens  are,  in  fact,  delightful  parks 
and  sylvan  retreats  where  bands  of  music  dis- 
course fine  selections  to  thousands  of  appreciative 
people.  The  turner  societies  also  express  the  physi- 
cal strength  of  the  people  in  the  vigorous  train- 
ing which  these  physical  exercises  develop.  The 
strong,  warlike  spirit  of  the  people  and  the  sharp 
military  discipline  of  mind  and  body,  the  fre- 
quent sight  of  marching  troops  of  stout,  athletic 
youth  in  uniform,  the  splendid  military  dress  and 
style  of  army  officers  parading  the  streets,  the  great 


80  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

military  garrisons  and  fortresses  of  the  land,  the 
yearly  manoeuvres  of  tens  of  thousands  of  troops 
in  the  open  fields  and  camps,  supply  one  of  the 
great  panoramic  views  of  German  life. 

On  a  par  with  this  physical  sturdiness  is  the  mental 
energy  of  the  people,  the  love  of  learning  among  the 
higher  classes,  and  the  universal  intelligence  among 
the  common  folk.  Their  common  schools  require  the 
thorough,  sensible  education  of  every  child,  and  the 
higher  schools  and  universities  have  trained  the  most 
progressive  scholars  and  scientists  of  the  world,  in 
almost  every  department  of  learning.  The  love  of 
fine  music  is  also  a  very  marked  trait  of  this  strong 
people.  Some  of  their  cities,  as  Leipzig  and  Berlin, 
are  the  centres  of  the  musical  culture  of  the  world, 
and  many  of  the  most  cultivated  musicians  of  our 
own  country  go  to  music-loving  Germany  to  com- 
plete their  training  in  the  conservatories  and  at  the 
fine  concert  halls  and  opera  houses  of  Germany. 

Again,  the  pleasing  family  life  and  customs,  the 
Christmas  and  Easter  festivities,  the  oft-recurring 
birthday  parties  and  gift-making  associated  with  them, 
the  loving  care  of  the  aged,  the  simple,  frugal  style 
of  living  among  the  common  people,  the  generally 
earnest,  loving,  and  sympathetic  quality  of  family 
life,  are  worthy  of  being  described  in  a  plain  and 
Dickens-like  manner  which  our  school  children  can 
thoroughly  appreciate.  Our  geographical  readers 
are  not  lacking  in  many  of  the  elements  which 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE          77 

America  and  Europe  are  already  familiar  to  the 
children  in  many  of  the  best  myths  and  stories  of 
childhood,  in  the  heroic  tales  of  early  European 
history,  and  in  the  voyages  of  the  early  explorers, 
such  as  Columbus,  Magellan,  Raleigh,  Drake,  and 
others.  The  children  are  familiar  with  many  stories 
of  English  history,  of  Greece,  of  Italy,  and  of  the 
Bible  lands,  and  even  with  the  maps  of  those  coun- 
tries. Our  population  has  come  to  America  mainly 
from  Europe,  and  many  of  the  people  trace  their 
kindred  back  among  the  different  peoples  of  Europe. 
The  great  trade  routes  over  which  our  surplus  prod- 
ucts are  sent  to  foreign  lands  have  already  been 
traced  to  Europe  in  discussing  topics  of  our  own 
geography.  The  climatic  conditions,  productions, 
industries,  commerce,  seaports,  and  inland  seas  of 
Europe  furnish  topics  more  resembling  those  of 
America  than  of  any  other  country,  and  they  may 
well  be  compared  with  similar  topics  already  studied 
in  America.  In  many  ways  the  study  of  Europe  is 
simply  an  enlargement  of  our  American  geography. 
Our  work  in  the  seventh  grade,  therefore,  will  consist 
of  a  carefully  selected  series  of  topics  on  the  geog- 
raphy of  Europe. 

It  might  appear  at  first  glance  that  so  small  a  con- 
tinent as  Europe  would  hardly  require  our  study  for 
a  whole  year,  but  a  closer  scrutiny  will  bring  to  light 
a  surprising  number  of  most  interesting  and  instructive 
topics  —  more  than  enough  to  occupy  our  full  time. 


78  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  United  States,  Europe 
is  split  up  into  a  large  number  of  distinct  and  isolated 
nationalities,  based  upon  equally  distinct  physical 
divisions.  In  Europe  there  are  fifteen  different  na- 
tionalities speaking  as  many  different  languages  and 
separated  from  each  other  in  most  cases  by  moun 
tains  or  seas. 

While  in  North  America  there  is  a  single  powerful 
nation,  in  Europe  there  are  five  great  powers  and  as 
many  more,  each,  of  second  and  third  rate  powers. 
All  these  things  considered  (the  variety  of  physical 
structure  and  of  national  life)  give  the  geography  of 
Europe  a  very  large  number  of  strong,  distinctive 
topics.  When  we  consider  that  these  are  the  fore- 
most nations  of  the  world,  and  have  attained  in  va- 
rious ways  the  highest  arts  of  living,  have  carried 
mining,  agriculture,  manufacturing,  commerce,  and  the 
fine  arts  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  than  else- 
where in  the  world,  the  lessons  of  European  geog- 
raphy will  prove  of  highest  value.  The  applications 
of  science  to  life  in  intensive  agriculture,  in  the 
making  of  fine  pottery,  silks,  and  textile  fabrics,  the 
museums  and  superior  art  products,  the  splendid 
architecture  in  churches  and  public  buildings,  the 
ruins  of  ancient  cities,  castles,  and  roads,  the  far- 
famed  scenery  of  mountains,  lakes,  and  rivers,  the 
aristocratic  forms  of  government  and  society,  are  all 
worthy  of  careful  study. 

The  history  of  Europe  during  the  last  two  thou« 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE          83 

quick  and  true  interpretation  to  the  greatest  ship- 
building mart  of  the  world. 

3.  To  place  the  leading  topics  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica side  by  side  and  measure  them  one  upon  another 
is  to  reveal  a  large  number  of  very  instructive  re- 
semblances and  contrasts.  Such  a  comparison  goes 
much  deeper  than  the  formal  statement ;  for  example, 
that  the  United  States  now  produces  more  tons  of 
pig-iron  than  England.  Such  lump  statements  are 
common  in  the  geographies,  but  do  not  greatly  en- 
lighten a  child.  The  detailed  treatment  of  a  few 
type  studies  in  the  United  States  has  supplied  the 
children  with  a  body  of  specific  items  of  informa- 
tion on  leading  topics  that  makes  a  fuller  compari- 
son on  those  points  very  interesting  and  richly 
suggestive. 

A  comparison,  for  example,  of  Berlin  with  Chicago 
(two  cities  of  nearly  equal  size)  will  reveal  the  surpris- 
ing fact  that  in  the  last  fifty  years  Berlin  has  been 
growing  nearly  if  not  quite  as  fast  as  Chicago.  We 
already  know  the  big  commercial  advantages  that 
have  caused  Chicago  to  grow  like  a  mushroom.  But 
Berlin  has  almost  none  of  these  advantages.  Situated 
on  a  barren,  sandy  plain,  with  no  natural  facilities  for 
water-transportation,  she  has  leaped  into  the  race 
with  Chicago  and  has  kept  up  an  even  pace  with  her. 
What  can  be  the  explanation  of  this  ?  Berlin  has 
clean  streets  and  a  careful,  thrifty,  economic  manage- 
ment of  city  affairs.  Chicago  —  1 


84  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

4.  Such  comparisons  furnish  a  singularly  interest* 
ing  review  of  American  topics.  One  of  the  standard 
illustrations  of  dulness  and  ennui  in  studies  is  review 
lessons  in  geography.  It  takes  no  great  gift  of  imag- 
ination to  picture  the  yawning,  sleepy  schoolboy  as 
he  sprawls  over  these  delectable  tasks.  If  there 
were  a  necessity  for  this  sort  of  machine  effort  in  the 
economy  of  life,  we  would  not  quarrel  with  destiny, 
but  we  are  disposed,  as  Lowell  says,  "not  to  go  about 
to  make  life  duller  than  it  is." 

It  is  quite  easy  to  see  that  a  small  degree  of  inge- 
nuity on  the  teacher's  part,  instituting  specific  com- 
parisons between  American  and  European  topics  of 
like  physiognomy,  is  able  to  set  the  whole  mental 
machinery  into  throbbing  action.  Such  a  compari- 
son stirs  up  a  whole  nest  of  thought-producing 
problems  and  makes  lessons  to  bristle  with  sensible 
questions. 

In  discussing  the  coal  production  of  England,  we 
notice  that  England  is  much  smaller  in  size,  popula- 
tion, and  area  of  coal  fields  than  the  United  States,  and 
yet,  until  recently,  the  coal  production  of  England 
was  greater  than  ours.  Explain  this.  Many  of  the 
greatest  cities  of  Europe,  as  Berlin,  Paris,  Moscow, 
Rome,  and  Madrid,  have  but  little  natural  advantage 
for  water  traffic.  In  the  United  States  not  a  single 
large  city  but  has  first-class  water  facilities.  Why 
this  contrast  ?  A  more  elaborate  illustration  of  the 
comparison  of  a  topic  of  Europe  with  that  of  the 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE  8 1 

make  up  this  picture,  or  series  of  pictures;  even 
the  peculiar  costume,  houses,  kitchens,  gardens, 
and  villages  of  the  common  folk  are  portrayed, 
and  those  singularities  which  bring  out  the  strik- 
ing lineaments  in  the  portrait  of  a  people  may  be 
observed  and  made  plainly  evident. 

It  is  plain  that  we  have  been  but  making  an  in- 
ventory of  those  national  qualities  of  the  Germans 
which  are  already  somewhat  familiar  to  us  in  Mil- 
waukee, Cincinnati,  and  other  German  centres  of 
our  own  land.  In  this  connection,  what  better 
thing  can  we  do  than  remember  that  we  are  well 
supplied  with  German  folk  at  home,  that  they  make 
a  good  share  of  the  strength  of  our  own  nation  ? 
We  may  consult  the  map  of  the  United  States  and 
locate  the  chief  centres  of  German  population,  and 
examine  the  emigration  tables  of  the  last  fifty  years, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  days  of  William  Penn  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Dutch,  to  see  how  many  people  the 
fatherland  has  been  sending  to  find  homes  in 
America. 

This  kind  of  study  will  give  us  a  more  intelligent 
sympathy  with  the  German-American  elements  of 
our  own  population. 

There  are  other  European  peoples  equally  worthy  of 
this  descriptive  treatment  and  study,  as  the  French, 
the  Irish,  the  Italians,  the  Scandinavians,  the  Rus- 
sians, to  say  nothing  of  the  Dutch,  Scotch,  and  Eng- 
lish. If  we  can  get  deep  enough  into  the  meaning 


82  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

and  quality  of  these  national  types,  we  shaft  give  a 
touch  of  true  cosmopolitanism  to  the  studies  of  school 
children. 

As  partly  indicated  above,  the  study  of  European 
topics  furnishes  a  remarkably  good  opportunity  for 
a  comparative  review  of  similar  American  subjects 
previously  studied.  There  are  strong  reasons  for 
making  such  comparisons  systematic  and  regular. 

1.  Many  American    topics  previously  studied   in 
America  are  surprisingly  similar  to  those  of  Europe. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  the  treatment  of  rivers,  moun- 
tains, cities,  commercial  routes,  and  the  chief  manu- 
factures.   A  comparison  of  Hamburg  and  New  York  in 
point  of  harbor,  commerce,  river,  canal,  and  ocean  con- 
nections, population,  etc.,  is  the  means  of  making  the 
facts  about  each  stand  out  with  singular  distinctness. 

2.  The  previous   full  study   of  similar  topics   in 
the  United  States  makes  it  possible  to  give  a  quick 
and  complete  interpretation  to  those  of  Europe.     If 
children  have  enjoyed  a  full  description  of  the  diffi- 
culties and  expense  of  making  the  Hoosac  Tunnel, 
they  will  very  quickly  grasp  the  still  greater  difficul- 
ties of  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  through  the  Alps  and 
the  advantages  of  the  same.     A  swift  and  accurate 
interpretation  of  new  topics  is   one  of  the  greatest 
achievements  of  later  geographic  work.     If  the  pupils 
have  studied  in   descriptive   detail   the   building  of 
wooden  and   iron   ships   at   Bath,  Maine,   they  will 
steam  up  the  Clyde  River  at  Glasgow  and  give  a 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE          85 

United  States  (the  Rhine  and  the  Hudson)  is  given 
at  the  close  of  Chapter  X. 

This  question  may  well  be  asked,  whether  the 
method  of  comparative  review  is  not  potential  enough 
to  take  the  place,  mainly,  of  the  usual  forms  of  review. 
We  believe  that  this  system  of  comparative  survey  is 
quite  sufficient  to  keep  up  a  vivid  and  constant  re- 
view of  earlier  geographic  studies,  so  as  to  allow  the 
children  each  year  an  entrance  to  new  and  interesting 
fields  of  study,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  dull  reitera- 
tion and  rehashing  of  old  subjects  of  study. 

5.  Another  effect  of  these  comparisons  is  an  or- 
ganization and  consolidation  of  geographical  informa- 
tion around  a  few  great  centres  of  thought.  This 
grouping  and  classifying  of  facts  is  what  gives,  in 
the  end,  simplicity  to  the  varieties  of  knowledge.  It 
ends  in  the  grasp  of  a  few  leading  principles,  and  we 
have  the  surprising  result  that  the  more  facts  we 
accumulate  and  the  wider  the  range  and  variety  of 
our  information,  the  more  simple  and  transparent  to 
the  mental  eye  it  becomes  ;  of  course,  this  means  that 
we  are  getting  at  the  science  of  the  subject. 

If  we  were  to  study  Europe  without  reference 
to  America,  we  might  easily  arrive  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  they  are  two  strikingly  distinct  and  in- 
congruous geographical  subjects,  with  very  little 
fundamental  agreement,  but  this  is  very  far  from 
the  truth,  even  so  far  as  the  capacity  of  school 
children  is  concerned. 


86  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

6.  It  is  quite  possible  by  these  comparative  re- 
views to  produce  in  the  children  an  unwonted  degree 
of  thoughtfulness  and  self-activity.  Children  of  the 
seventh  grade  are  competent  for  this  sort  of  effort  if 
they  possess  the  accumulated  resources  of  knowledge 
to  form  the  basis  of  comparisons.  For  this  we  have, 
however,  abundantly  provided  in  the  fruitful  type 
studies  of  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades  and  by  the 
further  treatment  of  a  few  similar  topics  in  Europe. 

The  independent  thought-process  depends  upon  the 
setting  up  of  problems  for  solution.  In  the  "  Special 
Method  in  History"  this  problem-solving  work  was 
elaborately  discussed  and  illustrated.  But  it  is  quite 
as  well  adapted  to  the  work  in  geography.  The  prob- 
lem in  the  form  of  an  equation,  involving  one  or  two 
unknown  quantities,  is  the  normal  way  of  stating  a 
geography  topic  in  this  grade.  At  least,  this  is  the 
case  after  the  main  descriptive  facts  of  the  new  les- 
son have  been  presented.  After  getting  at  the  physi- 
ography of  the  Danube  Valley,  its  cities,  commerce, 
bordering  states,  difficulties  of  navigation,  and  rela- 
tion to  the  Black  Sea  and  Rhine,  we  may  set  the 
children  to  comparing  the  Danube  with  the  Ohio  to 
see  which  of  the  two  is  the  more  important  navigable 
river.  They  may  examine  the  maps  and  descriptions 
of  those  valleys,  the  productiveness  of  the  regions 
through  which  they  flow,  the  size  and  character  of 
their  cities,  the  importance  of  tributary  streams,  the 
significance  of  the  Danube  as  a  route  connecting 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE          8? 

still  larger  traffic  routes  than  itself,  the  mountain  bar- 
riers  from  which  they  rise,  and  the  character  and 
number  of  the  people.  There  is  scarcely  an  impor- 
tant topic  of  European  geography  that  will  not  re- 
ceive a  flood  of  light  by  such  a  comparison  with  some 
suitable,  similar  topic  in  North  America. 

In  such  comparisons  the  strong  contrasts  are  a 
great  source  of  interest  and  clearness  of  thought. 
The  diminutive  size  of  important  European  countries 
as  compared  with  our  states  is  often  surprising. 
England  is  half  as  large  as  Colorado,  and  has  fifty 
times  as  many  people.  France  is  about  one-third 
larger  than  California.  The  Hudson  River  is  one- 
third  as  long  as  the  Rhine,  and  drains  scarcely  more 
than  one-sixth  as  large  an  area,  and  yet,  for  purposes 
of  shipping,  the  Hudson  is  deeper  and  broader  than 
the  Rhine.  The  great  traffic  routes  of  the  United 
States  by  rail  run  east  and  west  across  mountains  and 
plains,  almost  disregarding  the  physical  structure  of 
the  lands.  The  great  traffic  routes  of  Europe  adapt 
themselves  in  the  complicated  physical  structure. 
The  internal  waterways  of  America  are  naturally 
of  surprising  value  and  extent,  but  by  means  of 
artificial  canals  and  slack-water  navigation  the  rivers 
of  France  and  Germany  give  a  wonderfully  cheap 
transportation  of  heavy  staples. 

Quite  a  number  of  topics  of  European  geography 
dealing  with  the  crude  products  of  agriculture,  min- 
ing, and  manufacture  will  require  but  brief  treatment 


88  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

in  Europe.  Lumbering,  iron-mining,  grain  produc- 
tion, cattle-raising,  wool-growing,  and  other  raw  pro- 
duction have  been  described  in  such  complete  pictures 
in  the  United  States  that  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time 
to  describe  them  again  with  equal  fulness  in  Europe. 
A  quick  bird's-eye  view  of  each  of  these  great  indus- 
tries will  lead  at  once  to  significant  comparisons  with 
similar  things  at  home. 

In  this  way,  also,  we  shall  gain  time  for  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  famous  and  more  venerable  objects 
of  this  old  civilization :  St.  Paul's  and  St.  Peter's  in 
London  and  in  Rome,  the  famous  palaces  and  art  gal- 
leries of  Paris,  the  lakes  of  Scotland,  old  Edinburgh, 
the  Acropolis  and  the  Alhambra,  the  Gothic  churches 
of  the  Rhine,  the  Kremlin  and  the  houses  of  Par- 
liament, the  picture  gallery  at  Dresden,  and  the  ruins 
of  Rome  and  Pompeii.  Not  so  much  words  as  pic- 
tures and  scenes,  drawings  and  graphic  portrayals  of 
these  most  characteristic  and  remarkable  objects  of 
Europe,  are  necessary. 

For  five  or  six  years,  in  a  proper  school  course,  the 
children  have  been  collecting  history  story,  legend, 
poem,  and  biography  of  the  great  scenes  and  persons 
of  European  history.  The  geography  lessons  should 
take  advantage  of  the  intense  interest  thus  awakened 
in  European  geography  and  bring  the  brilliant  side- 
lights of  history  to  bear  upon  these  European  topics. 
No  country  affords  such  an  opportunity  for  this  as 
Europe.  The  Prince  Albert  Monument  in  Hyde 


EUROPE  — SEVENTH  GRADE  89 

Park,  London,  the  Castle  of  Heidelberg,  the  shrines 
of  Westminster  Abbey,  Abbotsford,  Windsor  Castle, 
the  monument  to  Germania  opposite  Bingen  on  the 
Rhine,  Napoleon's  Arch  of  Triumph  in  Paris,  the 
Tell  Chapel  on  Lake  Lucerne,  and  the  Columbus 
Monument  at  Genoa  are  but  examples. 


CHAPTER  VI 

EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY 

THOSE  parts  of  the  world  outside  of  Europe  and 
North  America  supply  the  topics  for  our  geography 
in  the  eighth  grade  :  Asia,  Africa,  the  Indies,  and 
South  America,  with  the  remaining  seas  and  oceans. 
This  furnishes  a  wide  variety  of  large  topics  not 
easily  organized  into  a  simple  plan.  It  contains  the 
widest  diversity  of  surface,  climates,  populations,  and 
stages  of  culture  from  barbarism  upward.  How  to 
organize  this  extraordinary  variety  into  an  instructive 
and  coherent  plan  of  studies  is  our  problem. 

Observe,  first,  that  long  before  reaching  the  eighth 
grade,  according  to  our  plan  of  study,  the  children 
have  become  somewhat  familiar  with  these  countries. 
In  the  home  geography,  in  third  and  fourth  grades, 
they  have  visited  China  and  Japan,  South  America 
and  Africa.  In  their  survey  of  the  world-whole,  they 
learned  to  know  and  name  the  large  land  masses  and 
oceans.  In  intermediate  grades  they  crossed  the 
oceans  with  Columbus  and  Magellan,  and  coasted 
the  shores  of  the  chief  islands  and  continents. 
Many  of  the  geographical  topics  previously  studied, 

90 


EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY  91 

as  the  old  trade  routes  to  India,  the  Portuguese  explcv 
rations  along  the  coasts  of  Africa,  the  colonial  posses- 
sions of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  chief  topics  of 
mathematical  geography  in  the  sixth  grade  have  given 
definite  knowledge  on  a  number  of  large  topics. 

But  we  are  now  to  sift  out  a  few  of  the  more 
prominent  and  instructive  topics  of  this  broad  and 
varied  field  for  such  enlarged  treatment  as  will  conduce 
to  real  intelligence  and  a  better  classified  information. 
In  this  as  in  other  fields  of  geographical  study,  we 
believe  in  taking  full  possession  of  a  few  command- 
ing positions,  getting  the  mastery  of  a  few  most 
significant  topics. 

If  a  teacher  were  strongly  possessed  with  the  idea 
of  learning  the  names  and  locations  of  places,  prov- 
inces, productions,  etc.,  these  regions  offer  a  very 
paradise  of  curiosities  and  freaks.  But  great  as  are 
the  attractions  of  this  babel  of  foreign  languages  of 
the  uncivilized  and  semicivilized  races,  we  must 
resist  the  temptation,  and  try  to  get  possession  of 
some  clew  which  will  lead  us  through  this  many- 
chambered  labyrinth  of  knowledge. 

We  must  determine,  therefore,  beforehand,  the 
principles  upon  which  we  propose  to  make  the  selec- 
tion of  a  few  leading  topics. 

i.  Starting  with  Europe  as  the  source  of  all 
modern  exploration,  migration,  and  conquest,  we  may 
study  and  interpret  large  portions  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  other  outlying  portions  of  the  world,  from  tne 


92  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

standpoint  of  the  European  nations  which  possessed 
themselves  of  these  lands,  and  in  many  cases  still 
govern  them.  This  point  of  view  also  opens  up  the 
great  traffic  routes  by  land  and  sea,  by  which  the 
products  of  these  countries  are  interchanged  with 
those  of  Europe  and  North  America.  We  can  hardly 
get  a  better  introduction  to  the  people  of  India  than 
through  an  account  of  the  British  occupation  and 
present  administration  of  Indian  affairs.  Likewise, 
the  story  of  the  Dutch  conquest  of  Java,  and  their 
management  of  its  people  and  resources,  will  give 
us  some  true  notion  of  the  value  of  this  "  Pearl  of 
the  East "  and  of  the  neighboring  islands  under 
Dutch  sway.  The  best  parts  of  Africa  and  South 
America,  the  whole  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
admit  of  the  best  approach  and  interpretation  in  the 
same  way. 

Some  may  object  to  this  effort  to  project  European 
ideas  and  standards  upon  the  other  native  races  of 
the  world,  but  the  very  contrasts  which  are  brought 
to  light  by  the  presence  of  these  European  standards 
are  what  enable  us  to  understand  them  better.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  world  is  being 
Europeanized  or  Americanized  as  fast  as  circum- 
stances permit,  and  the  movement  is  a  rapid  one. 
From  the  standpoint  of  commerce,  of  all  forms  of 
industrial  life  and  government,  European  stand- 
ards must  remain  the  basis  of  judgment.  Even  the 
nominally  independent  empires  of  China  and  Japan 


EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY  93 

are  now  completely  in  the  whirl  of  European  poli- 
tics and  at  the  mercy  of  commercial  influences 
which  centre  in  London,  Paris,  Hamburg,  and  New 
York. 

2.  It  is  not  possible  to  treat  any  of  these  proposed 
topics  without  constant  reference  to  important  physi- 
ographic facts  and  principles.  On  the  whole,  it  is 
better  to  meet  these  physiographic  facts  in  imme- 
diate relation  to  men's  necessities  than  to  study  them 
systematically  in  a  separate  category.  And  yet,  be- 
fore completing  the  work  of  this  year  a  number  of 
topics  of  pronounced  physiographic  character  should 
be  completely  traversed.  For  example,  the  great 
deserts  through  Asia  and  Africa  should  be  described 
and  explained  in  their  relation  to  mountain  ranges, 
oceans,  and  ocean  winds.  The  physical  structure  of 
the  great  mountain  masses  of  Asia  should  be  ex- 
amined in  their  relation  to  India  and  to  the  rivers 
and  plains  of  the  South,  and  to  the  deserts  and  vast 
plains  to  the  north.  The  same  should  be  done  with 
the  relief  of  Africa,  South  America,  and  Australia, 
and  the  points  of  resemblance  and  contrast  in  the 
great  continental  masses  noted.  The  equatorial 
regions  of  the  Amazon,  the  Congo,  and  the  East 
Indies  should  be  studied  and  compared  with  one 
another,  and  the  causes  of  the  marked  climatic 
conditions  understood.  The  relation  of  these  physi- 
cal facts  to  man,  to  the  density  and  distribution  of 
population,  to  the  vigor  and  intelligence  of  the 


94  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

people,  to  commerce  and  production,  forms  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  treatment 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  grade,  a  strong 
emphasis  should  be  given  to  those  broad  concepts  of 
physiography,  for  which  the  illustrative  material  has 
been  collecting  all  through  the  grades.  For  example, 
a  study  of  the  equatorial  and  counter  currents  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  a  comparison  of  them  with  those  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans,  and  the  effect  of  these 
upon  the  climate,  the  homes  and  activities  of  men 
upon  the  surrounding  continents  and  oceans  would 
organize  a  great  body  of  geographical  facts. 

It  is  toward  the  close  of  the  common  school  course, 
when  the  children's  power  of  thought  has  grown 
stronger,  and  when  the  data  upon  which  conclusions 
can  be  based  have  been  collected,  that  these  larger 
generalizations  should  be  worked  out.  The  mature 
and  well-furnished  mind  of  the  teacher,  seeing  the 
powerful  influence  of  these  great  physiographic  laws, 
is  inclined  to  preface  the  elementary  geographic  in- 
struction with  them.  But  younger  children  are  not 
ready  for  physiography  in  its  scientific  form.  The 
tendency  to  force  a  scientific  point  of  view  prema- 
turely upon  the  minds  of  children  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  place  assigned  in  the  grades  to  mathematical 
geography.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  taught  chiefly  in 
the  fourth  grade  or  even  earlier,  at  the  very  entrance 
to  geographical  studies,  but  now  we  are  postponing 
it  as  far  as  possible,  even  to  the  sixth  grade. 


EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY  95 

If  we  will  but  read  one  of  the  standard  physical 
geographies  for  high  schools  and  consider  how  little 
of  it  can  be  put  within  the  reasonable  comprehension 
of  children  in  the  intermediate,  and  even  in  grammar 
grades,  we  will  be  warned  against  haste  in  pushing 
scientific  generalizations. 

3.  Topics  having  a  strong  resemblance  to  those 
previously  studied  in  Europe  or  North  America  will 
require  but  a  brief  treatment,  and  a  short  compari- 
son should  be  made.  For  example,  gold  and  silver 
mining  in  Australia,  Africa,  and  South  America 
require  no  extended  description,  as  similar  topics 
have  been  fully  described  elsewhere.  But  the  com- 
parison of  results  on  a  large  scale  is  instructive. 
Cotton  and  wheat  production  in  India,  the  silk  in- 
dustry in  China,  the  agriculture  of  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  cattle-raising  in  South  America,  and 
the  government  of  smaller  colonies  require  no  full 
description. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  pronounced  and  character- 
istic topics  in  Asia  and  the  Southern  continents  de- 
serve an  elaborate  presentation  and  study.  Such 
subjects  as  tea  culture  in  China  and  Japan,  the  gov- 
ernment of  India,  the  Island  of  Java  under  Dutch 
rule,  the  Nile  River,  the  Congo  and  the  Amazon, 
the  character  of  the  Chinese  people,  the  desert  of 
Sahara,  coffee  plantations  in  Brazil,  the  progressive 
quality  of  the  Japanese  people,  Russia's  Siberian 
railway  and  relation  to  China,  England,  etc.,  the 


96  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Himalaya  and  Andes  mountains,  —  these  are  de- 
serving of  full  consideration. 

We  will  add  a  few  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  mode 
of  teaching  and  studying  topics  in  the  eighth  grade. 

The  plan  of  review  by  comparison  should  still  re- 
main in  full  force.  The  rivers,  mountains,  cities,  prod- 
ucts, and  people  of  these  Oriental  and  Southern  lands 
should  be  systematically  compared  with  those  of  North 
America  and  Europe,  already  familiar  to  us.  To  learn 
that  Java  is  not  as  large  as  Illinois,  and  has  twenty- 
five  millions  of  people,  will  help  us  to  understand  how 
productive  and  well  tilled  that  island  must  be.  The 
comparison  of  Japan  and  New  Zealand  with  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  in  size,  population,  and  importance  is  very 
instructive. 

On  account  of  the  marked  climatic  differences  be- 
tween the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  the  equatorial 
lands,  the  most  striking  contrasts  are  brought  out  by 
comparison.  If  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  be  com- 
pared with  the  basin  of  the  Amazon,  the  wide  differ- 
ence between  temperate  and  torrid  plains  is  displayed : 
one  an  impenetrable  forest,  wild  and  largely  uninhab- 
ited, the  other  cultivated  and  everywhere  habitable, 
with  scores  of  cities  and  a  thrifty,  intelligent  people ; 
the  one  region  flooded  with  tropical  rains,  the  other 
partly  arid  and  treeless.  They  have,  also,  some  in- 
teresting points  of  resemblance.  A  comparison  of 
the  Congo  with  the  Amazon  shows,  also,  a  striking 
contrast  even  in  equatorial  rivers. 


EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY  97 

The  comparisons  of  Eastern  with  Western  civili- 
zation reveal  clearly  the  advantage  of  modern  in- 
ventions and  scientific  progress.  The  contrast,  for 
example,  of  the  slow  and  burdensome  boats  and 
shipping,  poled  along  on  the  Yangtse  River  in 
China,  with  our  steamboats  on  the  Rhine  and 
Hudson,  shows  a  difference  of  hundreds  of  years 
in  progress.  A  study  of  the  processes  of  agricul- 
ture and  manufacture  by  hand  in  Eastern  lands, 
shows  how  far  they  have  lagged  behind  Western 
Europe  and  America  in  the  arts  of  life.  This  whole 
year's  work  should  throw  into  brilliant  light  the 
advantages  of  Western  energy,  intelligence,  and 
scientific  progress.  Even  the  savage  and  barba- 
rous races  met  in  the  East  Indies  and  Australia, 
intensify  this  contrast.  The  difference  between  the 
homes  and  occupations  of  the  Papuans  of  New 
Guinea  and  those  of  Germans  and  French  in 
Europe  may  lead  to  fruitful  reflection. 

Throughout  the  seventh  grade,  the  different  races 
of  the  world  are  easily  compared  with  one  another, 
and  the  characteristic  traits,  the  marks  of  excellence 
and  weakness,  are  brought  into  prominence.  In  the 
seventh  grade,  a  few  of  the  strong  nationalities  of 
Europe  were  described.  As  these  more  intelligent 
and  vigorous  races  have  spread  themselves  over  the 
world,  subduing  or  displacing  many  of  the  weaker 
races,  opening  up  trade  routes  and  marts  for  traffic, 
filling  nearly  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  world 

H 


98  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

with  something  of  the  spirit  of  modern  progress,  dis- 
tributing everywhere  missionaries,  merchants,  and 
soldiers,  we  get  some  clear  notion  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  whole  earth  is  being  brought  under 
tribute  to  the  needs  of  man. 

Among  other  things,  we  locate  the  thickly  popu- 
lated districts  of  the  world,  and  see  the  reasons  for 
such  concentration  in  a  few  spots,  while  other  im- 
mense tracts  of  land  are  either  uninhabitable  deserts 
or  impassable  tropical  jungles. 

One  of  the  greatest  lessons  of  all  is  to  discover  how 
every  part  of  the  earth  is  now  made  to  contribute  to 
the  needs  and  welfare  of  every  other  part,  and  to  see 
with  what  expenditure  of  energy,  capital,  and  inge- 
nuity the  aggressive  races  of  Europe  have  built 
canals,  opened  ocean  highways  and  continental  rail- 
road lines.  The  iced  meats  of  Australia  soon  find 
their  way  to  London,  and  refrigerator  fruit  cars 
cross  the  continent  of  North  America  in  a  few  days. 
These  topics  lead  us  close  to  the  present  trade 
rivalry  of  the  great  powers  for  the  commerce  of  the 
world,  and  to  the  question  how  the  prices  of  staple 
products  are  fixed  by  the  world  market. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  geography  of  the 
eighth  grade  brings  us  to  the  threshold  of  a  number 
of  great  sciences,  physiography,  meteorology,  anthro- 
pology, economics,  and  astronomy.  It  is  not  the 
province  of  geography  to  set  up  any  one  of  these 
subjects  as  a  distinct  branch  of  science  but  to  bring 


EIGHTH-GRADE  GEOGRAPHY  99 

together  in  an  interesting  and  instructive  way  much 
of  the  concrete  material  of  these  sciences  which,  in 
the  high  school  and  colleges,  will  be  expanded  into 
distinct  branches  of  study.  Thus,  standing  at  the 
end  of  the  common  school  course  in  geography,  as 
we  survey  the  whole,  a  bright  illumination  is  thrown 
upon  the  aim  and  scope  of  the  study.  The  broad, 
simple  comprehensiveness  of  geographical  topics 
forbids  us  from  specializing  in  physiography,  geology, 
or  any  special  science.  Science,  as  such,  i.e.  system- 
atic classification  and  order,  is  naturally  a  later 
product,  not  to  be  prematurely  forced  upon  children. 
In  the  geography  studies  of  the  eighth  grade,  chil- 
dren are  quite  able  to  master  the  lessons  from  the 
study  of  books.  They  should  be  thrown  as  much 
as  possible  upon  their  own  resources  in  the  study  of 
texts,  maps,  and  statistical  tables.  In  the  discussion 
of  lessons  in  the  class  room,  the  teacher's  skill  is 
best  shown  by  questions  which  test  the  thinking 
power  of  the  children  in  tracing  physiographic  causes 
and  in  suggesting  valuable  comparisons  with  pre- 
vious studies.  Children  are  not  much  inclined  to 
use  their  previous  knowledge  by  comparison  unless 
constantly  prompted  by  a  thoughtful  teacher.  In- 
teresting problems  should  be  placed  before  the  class ; 
for  example,  Which  has  the  stronger  grasp  upon 
Asia,  England  or  Russia,  and  what  is  likely  to  be 
the  result  of  their  rivalry  ?  What  will  be  the  effect 
of  the  opening  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  in  Central 


IOO  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

America?  In  the  struggle  for  a  firm  footing  in 
Africa,  which  is  likely  to  succeed  the  better,  France 
or  England  ? 

The  free  use  of  geographical  readers,  books  of 
exploration  and  travel,  and  physical  geographies  is  to 
be  encouraged.  The  stories  of  Livingstone,  Speke, 
and  Stanley  in  Africa,  Clive's  conquests  in  India  as 
told  by  Macaulay,  the  stories  of  the  Dutch  and  Portu- 
guese in  the  East  Indies,  and  even  the  narratives 
of  Marco  Polo  furnish  the  best  of  sidelights  for 
children  in  these  grades.  The  voyages  of  Captain 
Cook  and  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizarro  will  add 
a  lively  interest  to  certain  regions.  A  number  of 
the  best  commercial  geographies  will  furnish  a  large 
amount  of  interesting  data  for  explanation  and 
comparison. 

By  the  close  of  the  eighth  grade,  there  should  be 
a  few  large  surveys  of  the  world-whole  from  dif- 
ferent standpoints,  as,  for  example,  the  great  moun- 
tain systems  of  the  world,  the  large  oceans  and  their 
movements,  the  world's  chief  traffic  routes,  the  main 
centres  of  population,  climatic  conditions  as  indicated 
by  isothermal  lines  and  rainfall,  and  the  political 
and  economic  preponderance  of  the  great  nations. 


CHAPTER  VII 

METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY 

IN  geography,  as  in  all  studies,  much  depends  upon 
the  teacher's  method  of  handling  the  subject.  Even 
a  well-selected  series  of  topics  with  a  first-class  text- 
book, supported  by  geographical  readers,  maps,  and 
pictures,  will  not  insure  valuable  and  instructive 
work.  Geography  is  a  very  cornucopia  of  the  riches 
of  the  earth,  and  the  teacher  should  be  an  expert  in 
the  mode  of  displaying  these  riches.  The  first  need, 
however,  is  abundant  equipment  in  knowledge,  which 
we  presuppose.  Familiarity  with  the  leading  physio- 
graphic forms  and  processes  is  essential  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  history  of  various  lands  very  helpful. 

The  purpose  of  geography  teaching  is  to  awaken 
the  mental  energies  and  to  enlarge  the  mental  re- 
sources of  children  through  the  skilful  employment 
of  their  minds  upon  this  rich  material. 

In  the  home  geography  of  the  third  and  fourth  grades 
it  is  obvious  that  the  oral  discussion  of  topics  is  the 
only  feasible  method.  Even  where  text-books  outline 
and  treat  these  topics,  the  book-work  is  only  sugges- 
tive. The  local  excursions  must  be  worked  over  in  the 

KM 


102  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

class,  map-making  explained  and  practised,  and  the 
topics  suitable  to  the  neighborhood  and  surrounding 
country  elaborated  by  the  teacher. 

In  the  fifth  grade  and  still  more  in  the  sixth,  use 
xmld  be  made  of  the  text-book.  Yet  the  fuller 
treatment  of  important  type  studies  is  not  given  in 
the  text-books  and  cannot  be.  Some  of  our  best  text- 
books in  geography  have  selected  an  excellent  series 
of  leading  topics  and  outlined  briefly  the  mode  of 
their  treatment.  This  leaves,  however,  much  room 
for  the  teacher  to  enlarge  upon  the  most  essential 
topics,  to  bring  together  and  discuss  much  material 
from  other  sources,  to  institute  comparisons  and 
broader  surveys. 

Children  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  are  getting 
their  introduction  to  the  larger  geography  of  the 
world.  They  are  learning  to  think  in  geographical 
terms.  But  lessons  learned  from  books  are  a  very 
inadequate  means  of  getting  children  to  image  geo- 
graphical things.  With  or  without  text-books,  the 
oral  discussion  of  topics  in  the  class  must  arouse  the 
children  to  a  keener  perception  of  realities,  to  that 
sort  of  knowledge  which  is  gained  by  him  who  par- 
ticipates in  affairs,  and  which  has  upon  it  the  bright 
stamp  of  reality.  If  children  by  the  time  they  have 
finished  the  chief  geographical  topics  of  the  United 
States  and  North  America  have  learned  to  think 
geography  concretely  decked  out  in  the  complete 
furniture  and  equipment  of  real  life,  all  later  geog- 


METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  lOJ 

raphy  of  the  world  will  become  an  open  book  written 
in  familiar  characters.  It  should  be  the  premeditated 
plan  of  the  teacher  in  earlier  geography  work  to  throw 
the  children  into  the  midst  of  men's  active  employ- 
ments, and  into  nature's  varied  scenery,  and  in  some 
suggestive  way  anoint  their  eyes  with  the  power  of 
insight.  The  various  plans  and  devices  of  oral  in- 
struction are  well  calculated  to  give  to  lessons  this 
intense  realism. 

The  vital  power  of  instruction  is  that  which  is 
given  to  it  by  the  teacher  in  the  class  room.  In  the 
elementary  phases  of  any  study  this  is  surely  done 
by  oral  instruction  and  not  by  books. 

Assuming,  therefore  (in  connection  with  the  use  of 
books),  that  skilful  oral  discussion  and  treatment  of 
topics  in  intermediate  grades  is  a  fundamental  need 
of  teachers,  we  will  discuss  at  some  length  the  merits 
of  oral  work.  Consider  for  a  moment  the  sort  of 
topics  which  we  wish  children  of  the  fifth  grade  to 
master,  —  the  lumbering  business  along  the  Northern 
rivers  and  lakes,  a  trip  down  the  Mississippi  River 
from  the  source  to  the  mouth,  the  process  of  sinking 
and  operating  a  coal  shaft,  with  a  description  of  the 
coal  fields  and  marts,  cattle-raising  on  the  plains,  and 
the  cattle  trade,  shipment,  etc. 

A  clear,  printed  description  of  any  one  of  these 
topics  would  not  be  easily  comprehended  by  fifth- 
grade  children,  while  an  oral  presentation  and  discus- 
sion in  class  would  be  interesting,  instructive,  and 


IO4  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

easily  comprehensible.  Children  of  the  fifth  grade  can 
read,  but  they  cannot  put  the  sharper  interpretation 
into  what  they  read.  They  must  first  learn  to  think 
geography  concretely  before  they  can  interpret  books 
intelligently.  In  this  lies  the  whole  significance  of 
oral  instruction  in  the  early  stages  of  any  study. 

The  method  of  treating  types  in  class-room  instruc- 
tion is  discussed  more  fully  in  the  book  on  "  Method 
of  the  Recitation,"  but  its  particular  application  to 
the  elementary  geography  will  be  in  place  in  closing 
up  our  discussion  of  special  method  in  this  subject. 

Our  plan  of  work  for  third  and  fourth  grades,  as 
suggested  in  the  foregoing  pages,  is  essentially  a 
method  for  oral  instruction.  This  is  necessarily  so  in 
the  home  geography  of  the  third  grade,  and  is  equally 
involved  in  our  type  studies  of  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades.  What  method  of  instruction,  for  example, 
should  be  adopted  in  the  fourth  grade  so  that  children 
may  get  a  clear  and  adequate  understanding  of  a  coal 
mine,  or  of  Lake  Superior,  or  of  the  lower  Mississippi  ? 
We  are  not  in  favor  of  putting  a  book  in  the  hands  of 
children  at  this  age,  although  the  maps,  pictures,  and 
printed  matter  in  a  good  book  may  be  helpful.  The 
teacher  is  more  important  in  such  work  than  any  text- 
book. Let  him  handle  and  present  and  discuss  the 
subject  with  the  children.  This  involves  a  good  share 
of  the  art  of  teaching.  It  implies  a  mastery  of  the 
subject,  an  understanding  of  the  children,  and  a  prac- 
tical acquaintance  with  the  technique  of  instruction, 


METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  10$ 

such  as  discipline,  narrative  power,  graphic  representa- 
tion on  blackboard,  thoroughness,  and  drill.  The  effort 
to  acquire  skill  in  this  kind  of  oral  treatment  and  discus- 
sion of  topics  is  well  worthy  the  ambition  of  earnest 
teachers.  It  is  not  a  thing  of  easy  attainment,  and 
yet,  if  successful,  it  gives  uncommon  zest  and  spirit  to 
the  teacher's  work.  We  will  attempt  to  indicate  some 
of  the  imperatives  which  the  teacher  must  lay  upon 
himself  if  he  seeks  success  along  this  line  of  effort. 
We  may  remark  in  passing  that  many  teachers  are 
inclined  to  look  upon  all  definite  requirements  as 
limitations  to  their  freedom  and  individuality.  But 
thoughtful  teachers  are  seeking  for  definite  channels 
along  which  to  work  out  their  freedom  and  individ- 
uality. They  are  even  willing  to  submit  to  laws 
if  they  lead  to  success  and  to  a  better  regulated 
activity. 

In  connection  with  skill  in  oral  teaching  we  submit 
the  following  points. 

i.  A  complete  mastery  of  the  lesson  is  required  of 
one  who  will  teach  well  orally.  No  mere  reading 
ovei  the  lesson  will  give  a  good  preparation.  It  must 
be  analyzed  into  its  essentials  and  grasped  in  its  rela- 
tions. A  verbal  memory  of  the  facts  will  not  answer; 
and  the  more  one  comprehends  the  fundamental  no- 
tions of  his  science  and  possesses  great  fertility  in 
illustration,  the  better.  Mere  method  will  do  a 
teacher  no  good  unless  he  has  a  full  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  facts  of  the  geography  topic.  Scholarly 


IO6  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

people  are  accustomed  to  demand  of  the  teacher  that 
he  shall  thoroughly  know  his  lesson.  We  must  go  a 
step  farther  than  this  and  say  that  he  must  know  it  still 
better  than  that.  To  know  a  lesson  for  teaching  pur- 
poses is  not  only  to  know  its  facts  and  to  grasp  them 
clearly  in  their  scientific  connection  as  well-organ- 
ized material,  but  it  is  also  to  know  how  the  children 
best  approach  and  master  the  subject  and  how  to 
guide  them  in  the  process.  This  is,  for  young  teachers, 
at  least,  a  more  difficult  thing  than  the  mere  mastery 
of  a  science.  It  involves  skill  in  the  use  of  simple 
language  which  the  children  can  understand  and 
familiarity  with  the  children's  previous  experience 
and  store  of  knowledge,  also  skill  in  illustrative  device 
and  in  apt  questioning,  —  things  gained  only  by  severe 
forethought  and  effort. 

For  example,  the  preparation  of  a  lesson  on  the 
construction  of  the  jetties  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, for  the  purpose  of  teaching  it  orally,  requires 
a  thoroughness  of  survey  of  leading  points  and  an 
accuracy  of  detail,  with  an  adaptation  to  children,  which 
is  much  beyond  the  requirements  of  vigorous  teachers 
in  the  usual  mastery  of  lessons.  The  absolute  clear- 
ness of  thought,  simplicity  of  language,  and  aptness 
of  illustrative  sketch  or  diagram  greatly  exceed  the 
demands  of  ordinary  lessons  from  students. 

2.  Efforts  at  oral  teaching  more  than  anything  else 
lead  the  teacher  to  see  the  unmistakable  need  of  well- 
chosen  object-lessons  and  illustrations,  of  what  we 


METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  IO? 

usually  call  the  concrete  phases  of  the  subject.  B) 
confining  the  children  to  the  text-book  and  to  memo- 
rizing its  statements,  the  young  teacher  can  easily 
deceive  himself  with  the  idea  that  children  are  learn- 
ing and  understanding.  But  any  lack  of  interest  and 
attention  in  oral  work  shows  the  teacher  at  once  that 
his  words  are  not  understood,  that  explanations,  ex- 
amples, and  abundance  of  concrete  material  are  indis- 
pensable. The  oral  teacher  drops,  therefore,  into  a 
much  more  graphic,  illustrative,  concrete  style  of  teach- 
ing, and  this  is  undoubtedly  better  adapted  to  the 
minds  of  children  in  primary  and  intermediate  grades. 

It  is  observable  with  good  oral  teachers  that  their 
whole  style  of  thought  and  conversation  becomes 
tinged  with  the  objective,  realistic  mode  of  interpre- 
tation. When  they  talk  to  children  their  language  is 
couched  in  figures  of  speech,  images,  and  objective 
examples  from  common  life. 

3.  To  store  the  mind  with  a  rich  assortment  of 
experiences  and  dealings  with  objective  things  is 
singularly  valuable  to  elementary  teachers.  Just  be- 
yond the  narrow  range  of  the  average  observation, 
and  yet  within  our  own  home  and  neighborhood,  is  an 
abundant  store  of  what  are  called  common  objects  and 
activities  which  yet  elude  the  common  observation. 
The  ordinary  ignorance  of  plants,  flowers,  and  animals 
is  proverbial,  but  it  is  equally  great  with  regard  to  the 
common  employments,  products,  and  processes  of  in- 
dustrial life.  The  home  geography  of  the  third  and 


IO8  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

fourth  grades,  which  deals  with  these  very  common 
things  of  which  people  are  commonly  ignorant,  turns 
up  this  soil  which  lies  at  the  root  of  the  educational 
tree.  Our  naturalists,  novelists,  and  poets,  by  their 
loving  absorption  and  joy  in  these  common  things, 
teach  us  where  to  look  for  the  simple  beginnings  and 
deep  sources  of  wisdom.  But  schoolmasters,  by  a 
curious  fatality,  turn  to  those  artificial  cisterns  called 
text-books.  Sometimes  they  are  empty  for  lack  of 
rain.  The  teacher's  mind  needs  to  gush  up  like  a 
spring  from  the  midst  of  mosses,  stones,  trees,  birds, 
and  flowers,  or  like  a  fountain  in  the  midst  of  the  busy 
activities  of  the  street  and  the  shop. 

4.  The  ability  to  form  clear-cut  images  of  these 
various  objects  and  processes  is  a  peculiar  trait  of  the 
teacher.  What  the  teacher  bodies  forth  in  distinct 
outlines  in  his  own  mind,  he  can  the  better  explain  to 
the  children.  After  reading  a  description  of  a  coal 
mine  —  shaft,  tunnels,  chambers,  and  plan  of  ventila- 
tion—  the  teacher  should  ask  himself,  Can  I  close 
my  eyes  and  picture  to  myself  the  whole  mine  in  op- 
eration ?  Can  I  project  the  simple  plan  of  the  whole, 
as  it  were,  at  a  glance,  as  if  the  earth  walls  were 
transparent  ?  If  I  am  unable  to  do  this,  I  cannot 
present  it  to  children.  I  may  multiply  words  (darken 
counsel  with  speech),  I  may  even  tell  many  interest- 
ing facts,  but  the  whole  thing  remains  a  blur,  both  to 
teacher  and  children,  unless  that  one  bright  flash  has 
illuminated  the  whole  picture  with  intelligence. 


METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  IOQ 

In  picturing  to  myself  the  history  of  a  volcanic 
mountain,  such  as  Mount  Shasta,  unless  I  can  throw 
into  a  connected  series  the  succession  of  explosions 
and  lava  flows  by  which  the  shingly  sides  of  the 
mountain  were  built  up,  and  later  the  ages  of  storm, 
snow,  glacier,  and  gushing  torrents  by  which  it  has 
been  torn  down,  I  can  give  no  intelligible  account  of 
the  whole  to  children. 

After  going  through  a  shoe-factory  and  noticing  a 
multitude  of  interesting  details,  unless  I  can  sit  down 
and  bring  into  one  connected  series  the  various  work 
of  the  different  operatives  and  thus  image  at  a  glance 
the  chief  steps  of  the  whole  process  of  shoemaking 
from  start  to  finish,  I  cannot  make  a  successful  excur- 
sion with  children  to  such  a  factory. 

Geography  everywhere,  in  dealing  with  the  works 
of  nature  and  man,  calls  into  play  this  powerful  hu- 
man faculty  of  imaging.  There  is  scarcely  an  im- 
portant lesson  in  geography  where  the  teacher  does 
not  find  himself  fronted  by  such  a  problem,  calling 
for  the  splendid  constructive  power  of  imagination, 
It  is  just  barely  possible  that  a  student  may  get 
through  the  high  school  and  college  with  a  mini- 
mum use  of  this  imaging  power,  if  he  chances  to 
have  a  good  verbal  memory  and  fluency  of  speech, 
combined  with  indulgence  on  the  part  of  instruc- 
tors. But  from  a  fund  of  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired he  can  never  teach  school.  His  tools  are  too 
blunt. 


110  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

5.  It  is  in  this  connection  that  the  use  of  the 
blackboard  by  the  teacher  for  sketches  and  dia- 
grams, crude  picturing,  etc.,  becomes  a  source  of 
power.  In  all  such  cases  the  whole  energy  and 
skill  of  the  teacher  are  expended  in  stimulating 
the  imaging  power  of  the  children.  The  black- 
board is  the  best  means  of  simple  and  sharp  delin- 
eation. In  explaining  the  workings  of  a  canal-lock, 
a  few  simple  lines  on  the  board  can  do  more  than 
a  multitude  of  words  to  suggest  the  correct  image. 
In  showing  the  recession  of  the  falls  at  Niagara 
and  at  Minneapolis,  a  half-minute's  board-sketching 
is  worth  much  more  than  a  page  of  verbal  descrip- 
tion. In  exhibiting  the  depth  of  sea  beds  and 
relative  heights  of  mountains,  board-sketching  is 
a  short  cut  to  the  point.  In  almost  every  topic 
sketching  is  required.  In  showing  plans  of  irrigation, 
the  sinking  of  shafts  and  running  of  tunnels  in  gold, 
iron,  and  coal  mines ;  in  explaining  many  processes 
in  mills,  factories,  lumber-camps,  and  ship  construc- 
tion ;  in  the  ground-plans  of  great  churches  and 
public  buildings;  in  showing  the  action  of  streams 
in  forming  river  valleys,  the  position  and  effects  of 
glaciers,  the  contour  of  land-forms,  as  plains,  moun- 
tains, and  plateaus,  —  the  teacher's  use  of  the  black- 
board is  an  indispensable  means  of  economy  and  skill 
in  instruction.  The  teacher  who  cannot  use  the 
blackboard  freely  for  illustrative  purposes  is  shorn  of 
half  his  strength  at  the  start. 


METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  m 

Map-drawing  and  construction  for  children  will  be 
treated  later. 

6.  Yet  the  chief  means  of  getting  geography  topics 
before  the  children  is  that  by  oral  description.     Sim- 
plicity and  clearness  of  language  are  needed  and  a 
lively,  interesting  manner.     Teachers   who  are  con- 
stantly with  children  soon  learn  to  avoid  words  and 
phrases    which    they    cannot    understand.      Showy 
phraseology,  vague  and  high-sounding  words,  are  no 
part  of  a  teacher's  outfit  in  skilful,  oral  instruction. 
A  very  plain  and  lucid  style  of  speech,  which  any  one 
can  cultivate,  is  the  chief  requirement..    Words  and 
phrases  that  are  striking   and  picturesque,  common 
and  homely  figures  of  speech,  and  original  apt  turns 
of  expression  should  be  cultivated  by  the  teacher  with 
the  greatest  care.     Choice  language  should  be  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  a  teacher,  and  at  no  point 
does  it  come  better  into  play  than  in  these  oral  les- 
sons.    Yet  stiff  or  stilted  language  is  out  of  place. 
Freedom,  good-fellowship,  and  humor,  a  ready  inter- 
change of  question  and  answer,  and  the  full  use  of  ges- 
ture and  manner  to  give  clearness  to  thought  are  most 
desirable. 

Besides  the  usual  intercourse  of  life  the  more  care- 
ful study  of  the  best  story-tellers,  novelists,  poets,  and 
scientific  writers  is  the  best  direct  means  of  acquiring 
this  language  power. 

7.  Each  topic  or  type  should  be  grasped  as  a  whole. 
The  type  idea  which  the  particular  illustration  exempli" 


112  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

fies  should  stand  out  clearly  in  mind.  This  require 
ment  is  a  preliminary  and  preparation  for  good  teaching 
rather  than  a  part  of  it.  The  type  idea  may  not  come 
out  at  all  for  a  while  in  the  instruction  of  the  children, 
but  it  stands  in  the  background  of  the  teacher's  mind 
all  the  while,  and  regulates  his  progress.  This  central 
idea  or  line  of  thought  is  the  pivot  upon  which  the 
whole  discussion  hinges.  It  gives  the  teacher  a  true 
perspective  in  the  treatment  of  his  subject,  it  tells  how 
much  or  how  little  detail  is  needed  in  special  topics, 
and  how  far  it  is  safe  to  trace  the  relations  to  other 
subjects  and  into  other  studies.  In  short,  the  type 
idea  gives  the  teacher  a  safe  centre  of  operations. 

Each  topic  or  subordinate  part  of  the  larger  whole 
should  stand  out  clear  and  sharp.  Its  distinctness 
should  not  be  blurred  by  its  close  relation  to  other 
topics.  The  whole  series  of  related  topics,  constitut- 
ing a  larger  whole,  should  be  worked  out  beforehand 
by  the  teacher  and  afterwards  with  the  children,  so  that 
they  not  only  master  the  ideas  but  fall  into  logical 
habits  of  thinking  and  learning. 

We  deem  it  well  for  both  teacher  and  taught  to  pre- 
serve a  neat  copy  of  this  outline  of  topics  from  day  to 
day  through  the  year.  It  is  a  standing  proof  of  sys- 
tematic and  careful  progress  and  a  good  basis  for 
reviews.  It  will  be  serviceable  in  language  composi- 
tions, and  the  outlines  of  other  oral  recitations  in  lit- 
erature  or  history,  in  natural  science  and  in  language, 
may  be  neatly  preserved  in  the  same  book. 


METHOD  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  11$ 

This  clear  and  definite  outline  of  essential  points 
may  be  placed  on  the  board  step  by  step  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  recitation.  To  achieve  this  result  is  diffi- 
cult, but  is  worth  all  the  effort  that  may  be  expended 
upon  it. 

Fortunately,  many  of  the  large  type  studies  chosen 
from  North  America  and  Europe  contain  within  them- 
selves a  very  strong  and  necessary  natural  sequence. 
Lumbering  on  the  upper  Mississippi  should  begin 
with  the  pineries  and  logging-camps  and  proceed  to 
skidding,  floating  the  rafts  down  the  river,  the  saw- 
mills, and  distribution  of  lumber  by  rail  to  the  prairie 
regions.  This  is  also  the  actual  order  in  which  the 
work  is  conducted.  The  description  of  an  irrigating 
ditch  in  the  West  involves  the  following  necessary 
order :  the  building  of  the  dam,  the  construction  of 
the  ditch,  the  reservoirs,  the  letting  of  water  upon 
the  fields,  the  crops  raised  by  irrigation,  dangers  of 
floods,  water  rights,  and  the  settlement  of  disputes, 
the  market  for  farm  and  garden  products  raised  by 
irrigation.  Many  other  illustrations  might  be  given 
from  physiographic,  agricultural,  commercial,  and 
manufacturing  topics,  showing  this  strong,  natural  se- 
quence in  the  leading  divisions  of  a  subject. 

8.  This  brings  us  to  the  important  question  of 
tracing  cause  and  effect  and  the  solution  of  problems 
in  geography  which  was  treated  at  considerable  length 
in  the  chapter  on  Method  in  the  "  Special  Method  in 
History."  A  powerful,  causal  sequence  runs  through 


114  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

many  geographical  topics,  and  it  is  a  source  of  the 
strongest  interest  and  intellectual  effort  to  trace  out 
this  connection  of  cause  and  effect  through  the  whole 
series  of  steps  in  a  large  lesson.  In  the  sugar-beet 
industry,  for  example,  we  have  a  series  of  steps  in- 
volving the  raising  of  beets  on  the  farm  (agriculture), 
the  processes  of  extracting  the  juices,  slicing,  steam- 
ing, diffusion,  evaporation,  crystallization,  the  complex 
process  of  refining  (manufacture),  the  shipment  and 
sale  of  the  product  and  its  final  uses  (commerce),  which 
involves  the  adapting  of  means  to  ends  at  every  step. 
In  approaching  almost  every  stage  in  this  causal 
sequence  we  can  halt  the  class  and  call  upon  them  to 
solve  the  difficulty  which  is  presented  at  this  juncture. 
How  can  the  juice  be  extracted  from  the  beets,  which 
is  to  be  boiled  down  later?  In  raising  sugar-beets 
how  may  beets  be  secured  which  will  produce  the 
largest  percentage  of  sugar  ?  Is  sugar  obtained  from 
sugar-cane  by  the  same  process  as  from  beets  ?  Even 
when  the  problem  or  question  can  only  be  partly  an- 
swered it  suggests  a  keen  inquiry  into  the  causes  and 
reasons.  There  are  scores  and  scores  of  places  in  good 
geography  lessons  where  children  should  be  allowed  a 
moment,  or  if  need  be  an  hour  or  a  day,  to  work  out 
the  solution  of  a  problem.  One  peculiar  advantage  of 
this  problem -setting  is  that  pupils  are  brought  face  to 
face  with  precisely  the  same  problems  which  confront 
the  scientist,  the  agriculturist,  the  manufacturer,  the 
merchant.  They  are  dealing  with  the  realities  of  life 


METHOD   IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY  115 

in  the  same  form  in  which  they  appear  to  people  out- 
side of  school. 

It  is  quite  plain  that  to  solve  problems  in  geogra 
phy  is  to  make  it  to  that  extent  an  oral  study.  It  is 
doubtful  if  text-books  in  geography  can  ever  make 
much  headway  in  offering  problems  for  solution 
(although  the  questions  at  the  end  of  chapters  can  do 
something  in  this  direction).  Their  chief  function  is 
to  state  the  facts  and  conclusions  or  answers  to  prob- 
lems. 

The  teacher,  in  the  midst  of  the  oral  presentation 
and  discussion  of  topics,  can  frequently  bring  them  to 
the  attack  of  plain  and  definite  problems,  and  the  oral 
discussion  may  be  used  as  a  means  to  intensify  the 
struggle  with  these  problems. 

9.  Oral  instruction  which  involves  free  discussion, 
question,  and  answer,  etc.,  is  difficult  to  manage.   It  is 
apt  to  run  to  waste  and  to  end  in  loose,  incoherent 
work.     The  solution  to  all  these  difficulties  seems  to 
lie  in  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  simple,  funda- 
mental line  of  thought,  or  succession  of  topics,  has 
been  worked  out,  and  in  the  fidelity  with  which  the 
essential  topics  are  kept  clearly  in  mind.     The  art  of 
skilful  questioning  depends  largely  upon  finding  the 
pivotal  question  in  any  important  topic,  —  the  one 
which  brings  its  main  problem  clearly  to  the  front. 

10.  It  is  one  thing  for  the  teacher  to  do  his  duty 
in  oral  lessons  and  another   to  get   children   to   do 
theirs.    In  good,  oral  teaching  at  least  half  the  burden 


Il6  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

of  work  must  be  carried  by  the  children.  This 
again  calls  for  a  variety  of  skill  and  device.  In  the 
midst  of  the  presentation  and  discussion  of  a  topic 
children  need  to  be  pointedly  and  skilfully  questioned 
from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  be  thrown  back  upon  their 
own  resources,  to  make  use  of  previous  experience, 
and  to  think  and  judge  correctly.  Such  questions 
force  children  to  self-activity  and  original  thought. 
When  a  topic  has  been  properly  presented  and  dis- 
cussed, it  falls  to  the  children  to  reproduce  it  with  rea- 
sonable fulness  and  accuracy.  In  this  respect  it  is 
the  teacher's  function  to  hold  the  children  to  a  strict 
performance  of  duty,  else  oral  instruction  will  degen- 
erate. When  the  children  find  that  this  requirement 
is  unavoidable  and  sure,  they  will  be  prepared  for  the 
effort.  It  will  also  take  away  from  the  teacher  the 
danger  of  talking  too  much.  In  oral  instruction,  class 
attention  is  almost  an  absolute  requirement.  Not 
only  is  a  strong  control  desirable,  but  close  watchful- 
ness to  detect  inattention,  readiness  to  throw  out  a 
question  or  hint  to  call  back  the  wandering  thought. 
Variety  of  tests  may  also  be  employed,  brief,  written 
tests,  board-work,  map-drawing,  as  well  as  oral  re- 
production. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CORRELATION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES 

ON  account  of  the  complex  nature  of  geography,  it 
being  made  up  of  materials  derived  from  many 
sources,  its  connections  with  other  studies  are  numer- 
ous and  close.  As  compared  with  other  studies  it 
seems  to  be  the  most  companionable  of  them  all,  there 
being  scarcely  an  offshoot  of  knowledge  that  does 
not  find  shelter  under  the  broad  wings  of  geography. 

In  some  of  the  principal  schemes  for  correlating 
studies,  geography  has  been  regarded  as  the  mother 
study,  the  one  which  would  naturally  be  the  centre  in 
any  plan  of  concentration.  We  will  first  inquire  into 
the  number  and  character  of  these  relations  which 
geography  bears  to  the  different  studies. 

The  natural  sciences  are  usually  thought  of,  not 
only  as  having  many  intimate  relations  to  geography, 
but  as  actually  furnishing  a  large  part  of  the  warp  and 
woof  of  geography.  The  minerals,  vegetables,  ani- 
mals, and  all  the  physical  objects  and  phenomena  of 
earth,  air,  and  water  which  make  up  the  peculiar 
realm  of  natural  science  supply  also  the  subject-mat- 
ter of  geography.  Geography  deals  with  all  these 

117 


Il8  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

things  from  a  peculiar  standpoint  which  we  call  the 
geographical,  but  they  are  the  same  materials  which 
the  various  natural  sciences  deal  with,  each  from  its 
own  point  of  view.  Geography,  therefore,  is  very 
close  kin  to  the  biological  and  physical  sciences,  and 
has  some  of  their  blood  in  its  veins.  Close,  however, 
as  these  relations  are  they  do  not  obliterate  the  lines 
between  studies.  The  same  object  may  be  handled 
by  two  or  more  separate  sciences.  The  white  pine 
may  be  the  subject  of  one  or  more  pure  science  les- 
sons or  it  may  be  described  as  the  chief  lumber-pro- 
ducing tree  in  the  great  pine  forests  of  the  North,  —  a 
geographical  topic. 

In  this  manner  geography  reaches  out  into  all  the 
fields  of  natural  science  and  lays  hold  of  objects  which 
it  uses  for  its  own  purposes ;  for  example,  stratified 
sandstone,  granite  quarries,  volcanoes,  salt  beds,  coal 
strata,  iron  mines,  tropical  forests,  river  valleys,  the 
sheep,  the  cow,  the  camel,  the  sugar-cane,  the  silk- 
worm, the  ocean  currents  and  tides,  the  winds  and 
rains,  the  salmon,  cod,  and  whale,  the  plateaus  and 
mountains,  the  orange  and  apple,  the  wheat  and  rice, 
the  wild  fruits  and  animals,  and  hundreds  more  of 
objects  from  the  realm  of  nature. 

It  may  be  observed  that  wherever  geography  selects 
an  object  from  any  one  of  the  sciences,  she  turns  it 
into  some  channel  of  direct  utility  to  man.  Whether 
for  weal  or  for  woe,  geography  is  an  intensely  utilita- 
rian study.  Rivers  which  are  useful  to  man  for  naviga- 


CORRELATION   WITH   OTHER   STUDIES 

tion,  for  water-power  or  for  recreation  or  scenery  are 
favorites  with  geography ;  forests  which  supply  lum- 
ber, bays  full  of  oysters,  mountains  veined  with  gold, 
plains  yielding  heavy  crops,  winds  and  currents  which 
help  or  hinder  the  sailor,  are  of  great  geographical 
importance. 

Any  scientific  object  which  does  not  contribute 
directly  to  man's  luxuries  or  necessities  receives  a 
cold  shoulder  from  geography.  Geography  does  not 
often  throw  much  light  upon  purely  scientific  objects 
or  inventions,  but  she  is  proud  and  liberal  in  showing 
their  utilities.  Geography  would  never  explain  the 
principle  of  the  steam-engine,  or  the  safety-lamp,  but 
would  show  how  indispensable  they  are  in  manufac- 
ture and  mining. 

Geography,  therefore,  is  extremely  useful  in  show- 
ing everywhere  those  points  of  contact  where  man 
has  gotten  the  better  of  nature  and  has  used  her 
resources. 

Geography  and  history  also  stand  in  very  close  com- 
panionship. Historians  have  often  emphasized  the 
fact  that  geography  is  indispensable  to  history,  as  it 
were,  one  of  the  legs  on  which  history  stands.  On  the 
other  hand,  geography  is  greatly  indebted  to  history 
for  the  interest  which  attaches  to  many  of  its  impor- 
tant topics.  Scotland,  Egypt,  Italy,  and  Greece  would 
not  attract  us  greatly  but  for  their  historic  interest. 

So  completely  is  history  everywhere  environed  and 
conditioned  by  geography  that  we  are  inclined  to 


120  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

believe  that  if  all  the  biographical  stories  and  history 
studies  of  the  children  were  treated  with  full  regard 
to  their  geographic  setting,  children  would  have, 
without  further  study,  a  tolerably  complete  political 
and  local  geography.  Many  of  the  early  history 
stories  give  a  most  graphic  and  realistic  description 
of  the  topography  and  climate  of  the  important  parts 
of  our  own  country  and  of  other  lands,  oceans,  and 
hemispheres.  So  mutually  helpful  and  illuminating 
is  this  light  thrown  upon  each  other's  work  by  history 
and  geography  in  several  grades  of  our  common 
school  course,  that  we  have  laid  out  these  studies  on 
parallel  lines.  For  example,  the  geography  topics  of 
the  United  States  are  paralleled  by  history  topics  for 
the  same  year,  treating  the  same  regions  of  country, 
and  likewise  with  Europe  and  other  lands  to  some 
extent. 

An  examination  of  our  whole  course  of  study  in 
geography  will  show  that  historical  considerations 
have  largely  shaped  it,  first  America  fully  treated, 
then  the  movement  toward  Europe  with  an  elaborate 
study  of  its  large  topics,  and  later  the  journey  out- 
ward from  Europe  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Geography,  as  it  seems,  more  than  any  other  study, 
makes  a  free  and  liberal  use  of  all  possible  modes  of 
expressing  its  ideas,  whether  by  oral  and  written  lan- 
guage, drawing  of  maps,  diagrams,  and  pictures,  or  by 
manual  constructions  involving  those  simple  objects 
and  processes  which  geography  is  most  interested  in. 


CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  121 

In  the  geography  lesson  children  have  as  good  an 
opportunity  for  exercising  their  powers  over  the 
English  language  as  in  a  reading  or  language  lesson  ; 
they  often  do  as  much  drawing  as  in  a  drawing  period ; 
they  work  out  the  construction  of  a  canal-lock,  a 
loom,  or  a  mill-race  and  wheel,  as  in  a  series  of  man- 
ual-training lessons.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
a  great  development  of  these  expressive  phases  of 
geography.  They  lead  to  a  much  greater  clearness 
and  mastery  of  geographical  concepts. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  notable  discovery  to  find 
that  drawing  is  not  an  isolated  art  but  is  indispen- 
sable as  a  means  of  better  grasping  and  expressing 
another  subject. 

Geography  tests  all  other  subjects  in  the  school 
course  as  to  their  value,  and  asks  bluntly,  "What 
help  can  you  render  us  in  geography  ? "  Here,  again, 
geography  descends  to  the  purely  practical,  and  forces 
the  question  of  direct  utility. 

When  we  consider  how  much  teachers  of  special  sub- 
jects, like  drawing  and  arithmetic,  are  inclined  to  build 
a  wall  around  each  specialty  and  hedge  it  in  against 
outsiders  and  thus  create  a  cosy  nook  where  they 
may  be  secure  from  outside  intrusion,  what  shall  we 
say  about  geography,  which  goes  leaping  over  all 
fences,  disregarding  all  privacy,  and  laying  every  field 
and  grove  and  garden  under  contribution  ?  Geogra- 
phy is  an  obtrusively  democratic,  utilitarian  sort  of 
study.  It  is  a  kind  of  disagreeable  upstart,  popping  up 


122  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Jn  all  the  most  inconvenient  places  among  the  prescrip- 
tions and  aristocracies  of  studies,  and,  with  an  air  of 
equality,  says  to  its  neat,  well-dressed  companions, 
"  Roll  up  your  sleeves,  come  here  and  give  me  a  lift. 
I  wish  you  to  help  pump  muddy  water  out  of  a  coal 
mine,  to  find  a  good  fertilizer  for  a  sandy  field,  to  ex- 
tract sugar  out  of  beet-roots,  to  build  a  railroad  to  the 
top  of  Mount  Washington,  to  sketch  me  a  view  of  a 
scene  from  the  top  of  the  mountain." 

How  disagreeable  this  rude  familiarity  is  to  the 
refined  patrician  taste  of  drawing  and  literature,  of 
arithmetic  and  grammar,  can  hardly  be  expressed  in 
polite  language.  Can  it  be  surprising  that  the  word 
"correlation  "  has  become  a  word  of  evil  omen  ? 

Arithmetic  has  managed  thus  far  to  stand  aloof 
from  these  modern  troubles  and  confusions  and  to 
maintain  its  own  independent  race-course  for  the  train- 
ing of  athletes.  But  the  clock  has  already  struck 
the  fatal  hour  for  independent,  isolated  arithmetic. 

Nearly  every  important  topic  in  geography  needs 
to  be  analyzed  and  illuminated  from  the  quantitative 
point  of  view.  In  the  study  of  the  grocery  business 
in  third  or  fourth  grade  we  must  measure  various 
products  with  the  standard  gallon,  pound,  bushel, 
barrel,  foot,  and  dollar.  To  understand  a  few  of  the 
main  risks  and  chances  in  the  grocery  business  in 
any  sort  of  a  practical  way,  we  must  apply  these 
standards  to  an  interesting  variety  of  simple  arith- 
metical problems.  A  good  share  of  arithmetic 


CORRELATION   WITH   OTHER   STUDIES  123 

could  be  taught  in  a  grocery  store,  in  the  naturai 
order,  without  hunting  out  conundrums. 

In  dealing  later  with  the  subject  of  irrigation,  in 
measuring  distances,  slopes,  excavations,  the  flow  of 
water,  the  acreage  and  the  quantity  and  value  of 
crops,  the  standard  units  of  measure  are  used  at 
every  step.  The  arithmetical  problems  marked  out 
illuminate  the  whole  topic  from  the  quantitative  point 
of  view.  The  same  is  true  of  all  topics  in  agriculture, 
mining,  manufacturing,  and  commerce. 

In  dealing  with  rivers,  plateaus,  mountains,  and  all 
physiographic  processes,  there  is  no  clear  understand- 
ing without  applying  definitely  these  arithmetical, 
quantitative  standards.  There  is  no  new  discovery 
in  all  this.  It  has  long  been  known  that  arithmetical 
standards  underlie  all  the  work  in  the  natural  sciences, 
in  industrial  occupations,  and  in  geographical  forms. 
Arithmetic  also  has  drawn  a  multitude  of  practical 
problems,  so  called,  from  all  these  sources.  None  the 
less,  geography  has  not  been  correlated  with  arithmetic. 
Teachers  have  not  set  to  work  to  illuminate  geographi- 
cal topics  from  the  quantitative  point  of  view.  To 
use  arithmetic  systematically  as  an  instrument  for 
clearing  up  complex  geographical  notions  would  tear 
down  most  of  the  fences  between  geography  and 
arithmetic.  Arithmetic  must  come  down  into  the 
plain  from  its  castle  on  the  height  to  grind  corn,  dig 
canals,  build  houses,  hoist  the  coal,  drive  the  engines, 
and  look  after  the  factories,  shops,  fields,  and  mines. 


124  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

In  this  discussion  of  correlation  we  find  that  geog- 
raphy has  her  finger  in  every  pie,  that  there  is 
scarcely  a  fact  or  principle  in  the  whole  range  of 
studies  which  geography  may  not  feel  free  to  appro- 
priate to  its  own  uses. 

What  advantage  has  correlation  to  offer  to  make 
up  for  all  this  irritation,  to  say  nothing  of  the  con- 
fused and  fenceless  condition  in  which  it  seems  to 
leave  the  studies  of  the  school  course  ? 

Let  it  be  observed  first  of  all  that  geography,  more 
than  other  studies,  has  domiciled  itself  among  men 
in  the  midst  of  their  homes  and  usual  occupations. 
It  walks  directly  into  the  market-places,  homes, 
factories,  mines,  and  fields  where  men  are  at  work. 
It  observes,  studies,  and  sympathizes  with  the  labors, 
amusements,  and  hardships  of  the  people  as  they  are 
beset  by  climate  and  physical  surroundings.  Deal- 
ing thus  with  the  actual  conditions  of  life,  it  sees 
the  true  and  necessary  relations  in  which  different 
departments  of  knowledge  stand  to  one  another.  It 
finds  that  things  widely  separated  in  the  studies  of 
the  schools  are  closely  jostled  together  in  life.  The 
sciences,  music,  mathematics,  language,  reading,  and 
history  are  all  threads  woven  together  into  one  fabric 
which  is  constantly  poured  forth  from  the  roaring 
loom  of  life. 

This  intense  interplay  of  the  different  active  forms 
of  knowledge  in  the  conflict  of  life  is  the  foundation 
of  all  correlation.  The  causal  connection  between 


CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  125 

different  kinds  of  knowledge,  the  absolute  depend- 
ence of  geography  upon  geology,  history,  and  lan- 
guage, and  other  studies,  as  revealed  in  practical  life, 
has  forced  geography  into  this  emphasis  of  the 
relations  between  studies.  Arithmetic,  language, 
drawing,  and  natural  science  are  actually  present  and 
noticeably  influential  in  every  lesson  in  geography. 
No  topic  can  be  understood  except  by  tracing  out 
these  causal  relations  between  studies.  No  good 
thinking,  no  real  insight  into  the  world  as  it  is,  can 
be  attained  except  by  knowing  these  correlations. 

Geography,  therefore,  is  doing  nothing  more  than 
recalling  us  to  our  senses,  teaching  us  that  we  have 
wandered  from  the  track  in  giving  such  extreme 
isolation  to  the  separate  studies. 

It  is,  however,  not  so  difficult  to  give  strong  rea- 
sons in  favor  of  a  closer  correlation  of  geography  with 
other  studies  as  to  work  out  a  feasible  plan  for  its 
accomplishment. 

The  difficulties  in  such  a  plan,  and  in  overcoming 
them,  we  will  attempt  briefly  to  point  out. 

1.  A  course  of  study  in  geography  must  be  worked 
out  which  contains  a  well-selected  series  of  great  units 
of  study,  involving  all  the  essential  phases  of  geog- 
raphy.    Each  of  these  units  becomes  the  centre  for 
a  full  treatment  of  a  topic  involving  its  correlations 
with  other  studies. 

2.  The  topics  of  study  in  geography,  history,  natural 
science,  and  other  studies  must  be  run  parallel  to  one 


126  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

another,  so  as  to  meet  the  needs  of  children  and  to 
allow  of  a  natural  and  many-sided  correlation  between 
the  studies.  As  yet,  courses  of  study  have  not  been 
laid  out  with  much  regard  to  these  frequent  inter- 
changes, courtesies,  and  necessary  connections  be- 
tween different  studies.  When  these  preliminary 
conditions  have  been  satisfied  and  we  are  supplied 
with  a  well-arranged  course  of  studies  along  all  lines, 
the  teachers  who  work  out  this  plan  to  its  comple- 
tion have  special  trials. 

3.  There  is  danger  of  confusing  and  mixing  studies. 
In  stepping  across   the   boundary  into   any  related 
branch,  there  is  peril  of  losing  the  connection  with 
the  fundamental  line  of  thought  in  the  first  study. 
Experience  has  shown  that  this  danger  is  a  real  one 
and  that  even  good  teachers  get  on  to  side  tracks.    In 
geography,  especially,  it  is  easy  to  become  so  interested 
in  the  science  or  history  topics  suggested  by  a  geog- 
raphy lesson  as  to  spend  too  much  time  upon  those 
related  topics.     In  such  cases,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  hold  clearly  in  mind  the  central  idea  of  the 
geography  lesson  and  to  make  use  of  the  related  sci- 
ence or  history  only  so  far  as  they  directly  illuminate 
the  geography.     The  moment  the  teacher  allows  him- 
self to  shift  the  centre  of  thought  to  the  related  science 
or  history  topic  he  is  lost.      Good  teaching  requires, 
therefore,  great  clearness  and  well-balanced  judgment. 

4.  In    order    to    correlate    studies     successfully, 
teachers  must  be  well  posted  on  nearly  the  whole 


CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  127 

course  of  study,  including  not  only  the  different 
branches  in  any  one  grade  and  their  relations  to  one 
another  but  also  the  same  for  one  or  two  grades  pre- 
ceding and  following. 

The  wide  range  of  the  correlations  of  geography 
with  nearly  all  the  studies  of  the  school  course  has 
been  fully  pointed  out.  The  general  character  and 
value  of  these  correlations  need  to  be  well  understood, 
though  the  teacher  cannot  well  be  an  expert  in  all 
the  related  subjects.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  every 
teacher  should  be  well  equipped  both  in  the  knowl- 
edge and  in  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
method  throughout  the  whole  course.  These  are 
broad  demands,  but  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  children 
can  be  well  taught  by  teachers  of  less  breadth  and 
detailed  knowledge. 


CHAPTER  IX 

INCIDENTAL  TEACHING 

IN  geography  study  there  is  a  tendency  to  spread 
abroad  over  a  great  field  of  subjects,  and,  what  is 
worse,  to  give  emphasis  to  second  or  third  rate  mat- 
ters, to  minor  and  incidental  objects,  which  should  be 
made  wholly  tributary  to  the  large  points  of  view. 

Unfortunately,  schoolmasters,  in  spite  of  the  best 
intentions,  drift  into  a  number  of  favorite  exercises 
of  a  strictly  formal  pattern  and  of  a  wholly  secondary 
value.  Such  a  statement  as  this  needs  to  be  abun- 
dantly illustrated  and  clearly  proven  rather  than 
thrown  at  teachers  as  an  offensive  criticism.  We  will 
take  some  pains,  therefore,  to  specify  and  explain  our 
standpoint. 

It  is  well  known  among  all  that  a  great  deal  of  the 
time  of  children  in  both  study  periods  and  recitations 
is  spent  in  merely  naming  and  locating  places,  in 
telling  boundaries,  in  pointing  out  the  cardinal  points 
and  intermediate  directions  of  the  compass  (in  early 
work),  in  naming  catalogues  of  products  for  states,  in 
printed  map  questions,  and  in  strict  formal  reviews  of 
these  same  things.  In  the  eyes  of  most  teachers  this 

128 


INCIDENTAL  TEACHING  129 

will  not  seem  a  serious  charge  because  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  their  work,  as  planned  in  the  text- 
books, is  of  this  character. 

We  are  willing  to  go  on  record  with  the  statement 
that  these  are  in  no  respect  the  main  things  in  geog- 
raphy. At  the  same  time  we  claim  no  originality 
for  the  statement  nor  for  the  idea  that  underlies  it. 
Geography  is  not  a  set  of  drills  any  more  than  theology 
is  a  set  of  rules  for  ceremonial  devotion.  No  amount 
of  strenuous  assertion  on  the  part  of  schoolmasters 
that  these  things  are  absolutely  necessary  and  that  the 
discipline  secured  is  excellent  can  lift  them  from  a 
wholly  secondary  to  the  chief  place  in  geography. 
Quite  an  amount  of  machinery  and  technique  are 
necessary  for  teaching  geography  well,  but  we  are  not 
willing  to  sink  the  whole  subject  to  the  machine 
level  and  to  forget  that  certain  ideas  of  superior 
quality  and  strength  are  what  give  motive  power  to 
all  the  machinery ;  in  other  words,  that  geography  is 
primarily  a  study  of  certain  ideas  and  interesting 
questions  of  men's  relations  to  the  earth  upon  which 
they  live  and  to  one  another. 

But  in  taking  up  this  position  we  find  ourselves 
Hanked  by  a  strong  battalion  of  prominent  writers  on 
geography  and  even  scientific  geographers  who  insist, 
for  example,  that  the  earliest  lessons  in  geography 
should  be  sharp  and  repeated  drills  in  fixing  the  points 
of  the  compass,  and  in  early  exercises  in  accurate 
map-making,  beginning,  of  course,  with  the  school 


130  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

grounds.  The  defence  offered  for  the  severely  formal 
cut  of  this  early  work  in  geography  is  that,  by  a  close 
analysis,  it  gives  the  children  at  the  start  a  clear  grasp 
of  the  simple  elements  upon  which  all  geography  is 
based, —  the  ideas  of  place,  direction,  and  relative 
position.  To  fix  this  important  notion  of  place  and 
direction  clearly  in  the  minds  of  children  at  the  very 
beginning,  many  teachers  and  writers  are  willing  to 
resort  to  a  systematic  drill.  This  initial  drill  we  claim 
is  unnecessary  because  these  same  notions  are  best 
mastered  incidentally  in  connection  with  topics  of 
real  interest. 

A  few  years  ago  the  very  first  lessons  in  the  little 
primary  geographies  were  given  to  a  simple  treatment 
of  mathematical  geography,  based  upon  this  place 
notion  as  fundamental.  But  these  lessons  are  now 
abandoned.  We  do  not  question  the  primary  value 
of  the  notions  of  place,  direction,  etc.,  but  claim  that 
they  should  always  follow  in  the  wake  of  topics  of 
larger  human  interest.  Just  before  starting  out  upon 
an  excursion  to  the  fruit  farm  or  the  blacksmith's 
shop,  let  us  ask  the  children  the  direction  of  our  jour- 
ney and  which  ways  they  must  take  in  returning  to 
their  separate  homes.  There  are  dozens  of  situations 
where  the  children  will  need  to  know  the  directions, 
and  these  are  by  far  the  best  places  to  teach  them. 
As  an  incident  to  excursions,  map-making,  and  many 
other  topics,  place  and  direction  should  be  frequently 
pointed  out ;  but  to  waste  time  in  separate  lessons  on 


INCIDENTAL  TEACHING  131 

this  subject  is  one  of  those  pedantries  from  which 
the  schoolmaster  finds  it  hard  to  break  loose.  It  is 
worth  noticing  that,  in  a  parallel  line  of  work,  in  early 
reading  many  of  the  old  formal  drills  on  alphabets, 
phonic  exercises,  and  repetitions  have  been  dropped 
out  by  good  teachers,  the  thought  being  centred  upon 
interesting  sentences  and  stories,  and  the  necessary 
forms  are  mastered  as  much  as  possible  in  an  inci- 
dental way. 

And  yet  the  time  that  may  be  saved  in  this  manner 
in  the  primary  grades  is  trifling  compared  with  that 
possible  in  the  higher  grades.  What  quantities  of 
time  have  been  wasted  in  these  grades  in  learning 
and  droning  over  the  mere  name  and  location  of 
places  !  As  if  there  were  a  virtue  in  this  !  It  might 
be  something  to  know  where  heaven  is  but  better  to 
know  the  conditions  of  entrance. 

The  importance  of  the  place  idea  is  often  illustrated 
by  such  places  as  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  and  Minneapolis. 
No  better  examples,  however,  could  be  given  to  show 
the  emptiness  of  the  place  idea  when  taken  by  itself. 
One  hundred  years  ago  the  spot  where  Chicago  stands 
occupied  the  same  place  relations  to  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Mississippi  Valley  that  it  does  now.  The 
things  which  now  make  Chicago  an  interesting  object 
of  geographical  study  are  the  physical  and  human 
forces  at  this  centre.  The  place  idea  has  in  itself  no 
content.  Even  the  deepest  of  philosophers  have  had 
difficulty  in  thinking  and  explaining  it.  The  main 


132  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

point  to  be  considered  is  that  the  centre  of  thought 
and  interest  is  not  the  place  idea  but  the  objects  and 
their  relation  to  one  another. 

The  art  of  making  and  interpreting  maps  has  been 
frequently  set  up  as  a  distinct  department  of  geog- 
raphy. But  maps  in  the  common  school  should  be 
used  wholly  as  a  means  of  interpreting  and  expressing 
knowledge.  When  an  important  topic  is  under  con- 
sideration, as  the  Amazon  River,  the  map  should  be 
used  as  a  help,  an  incident.  To  spend  weeks  in  the 
execution  of  maps  seems  to  us  a  mode  of  abstracting 
the  mind  from  the  essential  subjects  and  largely  wast- 
ing it  upon  isolated  things.  The  tasteful  and  artistic 
execution  of  maps  is  a  pleasant  hobby  for  the  school- 
master and  an  agreeable  and  disciplinary  entertain- 
ment for  many  of  the  pupils,  but,  when  measured 
upon  the  standard  of  its  real  value  to  the  central  pur- 
pose of  geography  study,  it  is  a  dilettante  perform- 
ance. There  are  many  topics  in  geography  where 
both  teacher  and  pupils  should  use  ready  map-sketch- 
ing as  a  quick  and  graphic  means  of  explanation. 
Accuracy  in  small  details  of  coast-lines,  river-wind- 
ings, and  boundaries  are  not  needed,  and  momentary 
sketches,  correct  in  general  outline  and  proportion, 
meet  every  requirement.  For  such  purposes  a  map 
of  North  America  or  New  York  State  or  Boston 
can  be  sketched  in  less  than  a  minute  on  the 
blackboard.  This  makes  map-drawing  wholly  tribu- 
tary to  the  expression  of  the  thought,  little  more 


INCIDENTAL  TEACHING  133 

than  a  device  incident  to  the  skilful  treatment  of  a 
topic. 

It  is,  perhaps,  still  more  difficult  to  convince  the 
scientific  students  of  physiography  that  the  materials 
of  their  chosen  science  are  but  contributions  to  the 
main  stream  of  geography  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools.  In  dealing  with  the  Hudson  River,  for  ex- 
ample, we  do  not  begin  with  a  history  of  the  river 
from  the  standpoint  of  physiography  but  give  a  de- 
scriptive account  of  its  physical,  commercial,  scenic, 
and  historic  points  of  interest,  that  is,  a  sort  of  pano- 
ramic view  of  the  whole  to  which  physical  geography 
contributes  some  elements.  The  unit  of  thought  is 
the  whole  river  in  its  close  mingling  of  physical, 
commercial,  and  historic  characteristics.  There  is  a 
decided  advantage  in  not  isolating  the  physiography  of 
the  Hudson  from  its  other  elements.  The  closer  the 
connection  and  interdependence  between  the  physio- 
graphic and  commercial  and  other  facts,  the  more 
significant  will  all  the  facts  become,  because  each  is 
seen  in  its  necessary  relation  to  the  others.  Physiog- 
raphy, as  a  science,  does  not  come  to  light  in  the 
common  school,  but  its  best  elements  add  greatly  to 
the  meaning  and  force  of  all  geography  topics.  They 
have  found  their  proper  auxiliary  position  in  geography 
instruction. 

The  organizing  centres  of  geographical  instruction 
are  none  of  these  incidental  things  (notions  of  place 
and  location,  map-making,  physiography,  etc.)  which 


134  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

we  have  been  describing.  These  centres  of  thought 
are  the  geographic  types,  each  of  which  contains 
some  dominant  idea.  In  our  course  of  study  we  have 
tried  to  select  a  series  of  these  great  types  as  the 
real  basis  of  each  year's  work.  If  we  can  make  it 
appear  that  these  type  ideas  are  the  real  centres  for 
organizing  the  varied  facts  of  geography,  we  shall  be 
able  to  demonstrate  that  much  of  children's  time  is 
now  wasted  in  learning  catalogues  of  products,  lists 
of  names  in  tracing  lessons,  the  capitals  of  states,  and 
in  tedious  reviews  and  repetitions. 

For  example,  in  treating  Minneapolis  as  a  trade 
centre  for  making  lumber  and  flour  and  shipping 
them  (the  lumber  to  the  Western  prairies,  the  flour 
to  Eastern  markets),  we  have  a  very  striking  illustra- 
tion of  a  trade  centre.  By  comparisons  with  the 
cities  on  the  upper  Mississippi,  from  Minneapolis  to 
St.  Louis,  we  found  that  Winona,  La  Crosse,  Dubuque, 
Davenport,  Clinton,  and  St.  Louis  were  all  centres 
for  the  lumber  and  flour  trade  for  very  similar  reasons 
to  those  of  Minneapolis.  In  other  words,  Minneapolis 
is  almost  a  perfect  type  of  all  these  cities  of  the  upper 
Mississippi.  We  are  surprised  a  little  later  that  Mil- 
waukee, Chicago,  Saginaw,  Detroit,  Cleveland,  Buf- 
falo, Albany,  Bangor,  and  Augusta  are  centres  of 
the  lumber  business  in  a  manner  strikingly  similar  to 
that  of  Minneapolis.  In  some  cases  lakes,  in  others 
rivers  and  canals,  serve  as  means  by  which  logs  or 
lumber  are  brought  to  these  cities  and  then  shipped 


INCIDENTAL  TEACHING  13$ 

by  water  or  by  rail  to  the  markets.  In  all  cases 
these  cities  lie  between  the  forests  on  one  side  and  a 
large  population  on  the  other  side,  needing  and  con- 
suming much  lumber. 

Notice  now  that  in  following  out  this  single  line  of 
thought,  Minneapolis  as  a  type  of  trade  centres  in 
lumber,  we  have  located  and  named  all  the  larger 
cities  and  tributaries  of  the  upper  Mississippi  River 
and  have  seen  a  close  connection  between  the  great 
forest  belt  of  northern  Minnesota  and  Michigan  with 
the  rich  and  boundless  prairie  region  to  the  west. 
Again  we  have  located  all  the  Great  Lakes  and  their 
chief  ports,  noticed  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  their 
importance,  likewise  the  cities  of  Albany,  Augusta, 
and  Bangor,  the  Hudson,  the  Kennebec,  and  the 
Penobscot.  The  great  forest  belt  stretching  across  the 
country  from  Maine  through  Canada  to  northern  Min- 
nesota has  been  located  and  its  important  relation  to 
the  large  cities  and  populations  southward  explained. 
We  cannot  take  the  space  to  indicate  other  important 
facts  in  regard  to  the  climate,  resources,  canals,  traffic 
routes  by  water  and  rail,  mills  and  factories  which 
are  necessarily  incidental  to  the  treatment  of  this 
large  topic. 

The  main  point  we  wish  to  illustrate  is  that  a  single 
first-class  type  study,  like  Minneapolis,  tends  to  or- 
ganize around  it  a  varied  and  instructive  body  of  facts. 
Not  one  of  these  facts  but  is  seen  in  its  necessary 
relation  to  the  others.  Such  a  topic  throws  a  bright 


136  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

illumination  over  a  large  area  of  geographic  knowledge^ 
and  shows  clearly  the  relations  between  the  facts. 
All  these  facts,  however,  are  but  incidents  in  the 
treatment  of  the  main  topic.  They  face  about  and 
swing  into  line  at  the  command  of  a  central  control- 
ling thought.  Would  any  one  claim  that  it  would  be 
better  to  learn  and  locate  all  these  cities,  lakes,  rivers, 
and  regions  without  reference  to  any  unifying  and 
instructive  idea,  as  so  many  independent  geographical 
objects  ? 

It  would  not  be  difficult  to  show  that  a  relatively 
short  series  of  type  studies  of  North  America  may 
be  selected  which  have  the  power  to  organize  nearly 
all  the  important  facts  of  this  continent  in  their  nat- 
ural and  significant  relations. 

The  above  is  but  one  among  many  equally  good  illus- 
trations, to  show  that  nearly  all  the  important  facts  of 
geography  should  be  learned,  incidental  to  the  treat- 
ment of  large  geographic  concepts  or  type  ideas. 
Let  us  return  now  to  the  statement,  which  is  probably 
true,  that  much  the  greater  part  of  the  geography 
study  of  children  is  spent  in  learning  the  names  and 
locations  of  places,  in  cataloguing  products,  in  map- 
sketching,  map  questions,  and  review  drills,  and  this 
not  in  subordination  to  controlling  ideas  but  as  so 
many  sheer  drills.  Is  it  too  much  to  say  that  we  are 
losing  sight  of  the  essentials  and  are  satisfied  to 
mumble  the  formalities  of  geography  ?  It  is,  in  fact, 
trading  off  the  substance  for  the  shadow  of  knowledge. 


INCIDENTAL  TEACHING  137 

Besides  the  dulness  and  lack  of  insight,  which  are 
the  natural  fruitage  of  such  formal  and  spiritless 
study,  it  is  a  great  waste  of  time.  The  facts  learned 
in  this  way,  having  little  coherency  or  intelligible 
explanation,  slip  out  of  the  mind  and  drop  back  into 
oblivion.  So  we  must  have  more  drills,  reviews,  and 
repetitions.  The  threadbare  answer  to  all  this,  that 
such  drills  are  excellent  discipline,  has  lost  almost  all 
its  force,  since  our  school  course  is  now  becoming  so 
congested  with  the  variety  and  quantity  of  materials, 
that  we  are  forced  to  call  for  simplification  and  reduc- 
tion of  waste.  Simplification  is  provided  for  in  the 
selection  of  a  few  types  or  organic  centres  of  thought ; 
an  extravagant  waste  of  time  and  effort  is  avoided  by 
confining  our  attention  to  those  facts  which  are  nec- 
essarily incident  to  the  few  central  topics  of  study. 

The  important  principle  which  we  wish  to  illustrate 
in  this  chapter  is  that  the  great  body  of  important 
facts  in  geography  should  be  learned  incidentally  and 
in  their  natural  subordination  to  the  real  centres 
of  geographic  thought.  To  set  up  all  these  varied 
facts  as  distinct  and  separate  objects  of  study,  leads 
to  a  dreary  round  of  memory  drills  with  a  small  expen- 
diture of  thought  and  intelligence. 

We  have  had  numerous  illustrations  to  prove  that 
most  of  the  review  drills  may  be  dispensed  with  by  a 
constant  system  of  comparing  later  with  earlier  objects 
of  study  and  with  great  increase  of  interest  and 
thoughtfulness.  This  plan  of  comparisons  is,  therefore, 


138  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

a  means  of  making  reviews  incidental  and  far  more 
effective. 

Among  schoolmasters  the  tendency  is  marked,  to 
bring  secondary  matters  into  great  prominence,  to 
make  a  merit  of  drill  and  routine,  to  lose  sight  of  the 
overwhelming  importance  of  the  central,  organizing 
ideas  of  a  study.  The  principle  of  incidental  teaching 
is  a  constant  reminder  to  force  back  all  these  second- 
ary matters  to  their  proper  place  of  subordination, 
where  their  real  value  is  great.  To  hold  on  to  the 
trappings  and  mere  formalities  of  instruction  to  the 
neglect  of  the  essentials  is  the  old,  oft-repeated  error 
of  form  versus  spirit. 

Geography,  being  such  a  complex  subject,  drawing 
its  constituent  materials  from  the  whole  wide  field  of 
the  natural  sciences,  as  well  as  from  history  and  the 
social  sciences,  is  compelled,  more  than  other  studies, 
to  guard  its  central  strongholds  of  thought  and  to 
bring  all  other  subjects  into  proper  subordination  to 
these  centres. 


CHAPTER  X 

TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES 

A  SERIES  OF  TOPICS  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES  ON  THE 
STUDY  OF  GOVERNMENT 

(i)  The  local  town  government.  (2)  State  gov- 
ernment at  Springfield  or  of  any  other  state  capital. 
(3)  The  government  at  Washington.  (4)  Govern- 
ment of  England  centring  in  London.  (5)  Berlin 
and  the  Kaiser.  (6)  St.  Petersburg  and  the  Czar. 

This  series  of  topics,  beginning  with  the  local  mat- 
ters familiar  to  the  child  in  his  own  home  and  reach- 
ing out  gradually  to  the  state  and  nation  in  which  he 
lives,  and  in  the  later  grades  leading  to  the  study  of 
foreign  governments  and  their  comparison  with  our 
own,  gives  us  an  illustration  of  the  successive  topics 
in  one  great  geographical  subject.  Each  of  these  will 
be  briefly  treated  as  follows  :  — 

I.  The  local  town  government.  Town  councils 
elected  by  the  people  are  familiar  to  the  children  and 
should  be  described.  They  have  charge  of  the  streets, 
sidewalks,  bridges,  appointment  and  payment  of  the 
police,  waterworks,  gas  or  electric  light  plant,  and  ex- 
penditure for  other  purposes.  The  mayor  of  the  town 

139 


140  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

is  also  an  executive  officer  who  is  directly  responsible 
for  the  ordinances  which  are  passed  by  the  council 
The  justice  of  the  peace  in  the  village  tries  the  cases 
which  come  before  him  under  the  law.  We  have, 
therefore,  in  the  village  the  law-making  power,  the  ad- 
ministrative authority,  and  the  local  judge  for  the  trial 
of  cases.  Matters  concerning  which  laws  may  be  passed, 
as  streets,  bridges,  etc.,  ought  to  be  mentioned;  also 
the  granting  of  licenses  for  the  sale  of  tobacco,  liq- 
uors ;  concerning  bicycles,  pedlers,  the  care  of  the 
poor,  and  of  tramps ;  concerning  health,  the  amount 
of  tax  levy,  and  other  matters.  If  the  children  live 
in  a  small  city,  or  even  in  a  larger  city,  these  topics 
may  be  somewhat  enlarged,  and  the  importance  of  the 
topics  just  mentioned  may  be  illustrated  in  a  more 
striking  way.  This  topic  is  also  connected  with 
the  affairs  of  the  local  school  board  elected  by  the 
people,  which  administers  the  affairs  of  the  schools, 
provides  for  the  buildings  and  teachers,  and  the 
expenditure  of  money  for  the  general  purposes  of 
education. 

A  second  topic  not  mentioned  in  the  outline,  well 
worthy  of  study,  is  that  of  the  county  government  as 
centring  in  the  court-house,  with  its  county  officers 
and  their  administration  of  county  affairs.  An  ex- 
cursion by  the  children  to  the  court-house,  including 
a  visit  to  the  court  room  and  to  the  office  of  the 
county  recorder  where  the  titles  to  property  in  the 
town  and  county  are  preserved,  is  a  source  of  excellent 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES       141 

knowledge.  Who  pays  the  expenses  of  the  county 
government  ?  The  salaries  of  the  county  officers  ? 
The  cost  of  the  county  court-house  and  the  expenses 
of  the  county  court  ?  The  topics  which  we  have  just 
referred  to  should  be  handled  in  the  third  or  fourth 
grade  as  an  essential  part  of  the  geographical  in- 
struction which  embraces  the  leading  topics  of 
home  geography. 

2.  The  second  chief  topic  in  connection  with  the 
government  will  be  treated  in  the  fourth  grade,  per- 
haps a  year  later,  and  deals  with  the  government  at 
the  state  capital,  as,  for  example,  Springfield,  Illinois. 
The  state  Legislature,  consisting  of  the  House  and 
the  Senate,  is  made  up  of  members  selected  from  the 
different  representative  and  senatorial  districts  of  the 
state  and  elected  by  the  people.  This  legislative 
body  of  two  houses  makes  the  laws  of  the  state  under 
conditions  imposed  by  the  state  constitution.  Laws 
made  by  the  state  Legislature  deal  with  railroads,  as, 
for  example,  the  fare  to  be  charged,  precautions  at 
crossings,  bridges,  etc. 

State  laws  also  are  made  upon  subjects  of  state 
taxation,  the  building  or  repair  of  canals,  granting 
charters  to  cities,  in  regard  to  temperance  and  the 
manufacture  of  liquors,  in  regard  to  the  school 
affairs  of  the  state,  also  concerning  the  state  institu- 
tions for  the  defective  classes,  as  the  orphan  asylums, 
blind  asylums,  insane  asylums ;  also  for  the  state 
schools  of  agriculture,  the  normal  schools,  and  the 


142  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

university.  State  laws  are  also  made  in  regard  to 
the  coal  mines,  building  and  loan  associations,  insur- 
ance companies ;  also  in  regard  to  the  state  militia 
and  equipment.  All  bills  must  be  agreed  upon  by 
both  houses  of  the  Legislature  before  they  become 
laws  and  are  also  generally  signed  by  the  Governor 
of  the  state.  The  Governor,  who  is  also  elected 
every  four  years  by  the  people  of  the  state,  lives 
at  Springfield,  and  with  his  cabinet  is  charged  with 
carrying  out  the  laws  of  the  state.  He  has  the  power 
of  appointment  of  many  of  the  officers  and  commis- 
sions, as,  for  example,  the  governing  boards  of  the 
educational  institutions  and  many  other  state  com- 
missions. He  is  also  at  the  head  of  the  militia  of  the 
state,  and  calls  it  out  in  case  of  serious  disturbance 
or  war. 

A  third  division  of  the  government  at  Springfield 
consists  of  the  state  Supreme  Court,  which  meets  at 
the  capital  to  try  cases  which  are  brought  before  it 
under  the  laws  of  the  state.  This  court  of  judges 
has  the  final  decision  of  important  cases  arising 
under  the  state  laws,  for  example,  the  recent  reap- 
portionment  of  the  state.  But  a  law  passed  in  the 
Legislature  was  lately  pronounced  unconstitutional 
by  the  Supreme  Court,  and  thereby  it  ceased  to  be  a 
law,  although  passed  by  the  state  Legislature  and 
approved  by  the  Governor. 

In  the  city  of  Springfield  is  found  the  state  capitol, 
a  massive  building  built  at  the  expense  of  the  state, 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        143 

in  which  are  found  the  large  assembly  rooms  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  Senate,  state  Supreme 
Court,  and  the  offices  of  the  Governor  and  other 
state  officials.  A  picture  of  this  building  should  be 
shown  to  the  children  and  the  principal  rooms 
explained;  also  the  other  interesting  buildings  and 
monuments  found  in  the  state  capital,  as,  for  example, 
the  old  state-house,  now  the  county  court-house  at 
Springfield,  the  old  home  of  Lincoln,  and  the  Lincoln 
monument  at  the  cemetery.  The  railroad  or  other 
connections  of  the  state  capital  with  other  parts  of 
the  state  should  be  noted,  and  the  most  important 
state  institutions  should  be  located. 

No  such  exhaustive  treatment  of  any  other  state 
government  than  that  of  the  home  state  will  be 
found  necessary  as  the  children  advance  to  the  study 
of  other  surrounding  states.  The  capitals  of  the 
various  states  will  be  incidentally  located  as  we  study 
the  other  states  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  of  the 
country. 

3.  In  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade  the  topic  of  government 
comes  up  on  a  larger  scale  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  Washington  as  the  capital  of  the  United  States.  It 
should  be  made  instructive  and  interesting  by  means 
of  pictures  of  the  great  public  buildings,  important 
monuments,  and  historical  objects  of  interest  in  the 
city.  The  great  Capitol  building  will  naturally  be 
the  centre  of  this  topic,  and  the  three  principal  head- 
ings will  be  Congress,  the  President,  and  the  Su- 


144  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

preme  Court.  The  law-making  power,  or  Congress, 
should  be  explained  in  the  concrete  treatment  of  the 
laws  which  are  passed  by  Congress ;  for  example, 
the  late  tariff  law  which  fixed  the  tariff  on  many 
kinds  of  manufactured  goods  imported  into  this 
country ;  the  internal  revenue  law  which  levies  duty 
upon  tobacco,  whiskey,  and  luxuries  produced  in 
our  own  country.  Laws  are  also  passed  relating  to 
money  and  coinage,  to  commerce,  agriculture,  patents, 
divorce,  immigration,  peace  and  war,  army,  navy, 
post-office,  relations  with  foreign  countries,  and  a 
great  many  other  important  subjects.  It  should  be 
seen  that  these  laws  are  of  such  a  character  as  to 
apply  equally  to  all  people  of  the  different  states  and 
not  to  any  particular  locality. 

Pictures  should  be  shown  in  the  geographies  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  Senate,  and  some  of 
the  leading  men  familiar  to  the  public  should  be 
named  and  associated  either  with  the  Senate  or  with 
the  House.  The  President  at  his  home  in  the  White 
House,  his  duties,  and  responsibilities  will  deserve 
some  treatment.  In  what  way  does  the  President  of 
the  United  States  directly  influence  the  affairs  of 
our  own  home  ?  What  men  has  he  appointed  to 
office  in  our  town,  county,  or  state?  What  influ- 
ence has  he  over  the  laws  that  are  passed  in  Con- 
gress ?  Why  is  he  called  the  chief  executive  officer  ? 
How  is  his  cabinet  appointed,  and  of  what  does  it 
consist  ? 


TYPES   RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        145 

The  Supreme  Court  has  jurisdiction  over  all 
important  questions  arising  under  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States.  What  sort  of  cases  does  it  try  ? 
Examples  of  its  power  in  this  respect  must  be  cited  ; 
as,  for  example,  the  more  recent  transactions  in  the 
interstate-commerce  commission,  and  other  cases. 
A  short  account  of  the  history  of  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington as  the  seat  of  government  will  be  appropriate 
in  this  connection.  Why  does  it  lie  so  far  to  one 
side  of  the  country  ?  At  the  time  of  the  founding  of 
Washington,  what  was  the  relation  of  this  city  to  the 
population  of  the  country  ?  How  large  a  city  is  it  ? 
How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  largest  cities, 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  Chicago,  etc.  ?  Study  the 
map  of  the  city  of  Washington,  and  locate  two  or 
three  of  the  principal  streets  and  chief  public 
buildings. 

Compare  now  the  governments  of  the  United 
States  at  Washington  and  of  the  state  at  Springfield, 
and  even  of  the  local  city  or  village,  and  bring  out 
the  fact  that  the  government  in  all  of  these  cases 
falls  into  three  divisions  or  departments :  the  execu- 
tive, legislative,  and  judicial.  In  what  relation  do 
the  laws  of  the  city,  state,  and  nation  stand  to  each 
other  ?  How  are  the  officers  of  these  three  different 
kinds  of  government  chosen  ? 

4.  In  the  seventh  grade,  when  we  come  to  study  the 
central  government  of  England  at  London,  we  shall 
find  the  most  prominent  object,  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 


146  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

ment  on  the  Thames.  An  excellent  picture  of  this 
building  can  be  found  in  one  of  the  geographies  or 
in  Shepp's  photographs,  and  from  a  guide-book  the 
ground-plan  of  the  building,  showing  especially  the 
House  of  Commons  and  the  House  of  Lords,  may  be 
secured. 

In  the  making  of  the  laws  the  two  houses  corre- 
spond closely  to  our  House  of  Representatives  and 
Senate,  and  the  general  plan  of  the  building,  with  a 
central  hall  or  dome  and  the  two  great  chambers  on 
opposite  sides  of  it  in  the  wings,  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  national  Capitol  at  Washington  and  of  the 
state  capitol  building  at  Springfield,  and  of  many 
other  state  capitols. 

Upon  inquiring  into  the  manner  of  choosing  the 
members  of  Parliament,  the  contrast  between  our 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Lords  appears.  Our  sena- 
tors are  chosen  by  the  state  legislatures,  the  lords 
are  mostly  hereditary  in  their  rights.  They  are  born 
lords,  and  with  this  is  connected  the  right  of  primo- 
geniture, long  since  abolished  in  this  country. 

On  the  executive  side  the  prime  minister  and  his 
cabinet  correspond  to  our  President  and  cabinet. 
Their  duties  in  the  main  are  similar.  But  at  one 
corner  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  is  the  great 
Victoria  Tower,  through  which  the  King  passes  to 
the  robing  rooms.  The  mention  of  the  King  brings 
out  with  great  pointedness  the  one  marked  contrast 
between  our  government  and  that  of  England.  The 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        147 

King,  or  hereditary  monarch,  ruling  by  right  of 
birth,  is  the  social  and  political  head  of  England, 
signs  all  laws  as  does  our  President,  calls  upon  some 
one  to  form  a  ministry,  etc. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  England  has  in  general  the 
same  functions  as  that  body  with  us.  The  striking  dif- 
ference is  the  royal  family.  It  may  be  well  here  to 
locate  the  King's  palaces :  St.  James  and  Buckingham, 
near  the  Parliament  houses  in  London ;  Balmoral, 
with  its  immense  estates,  in  Scotland ;  Windsor,  on 
the  Thames  above  London,  and  Osborne  House,  on 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  Excellent  pictures  and  descrip- 
tions of  these  are  given  in  Shepp's  photographs. 

All  these,  like  his  kingly  power,  are  held  by 
hereditary  right  by  the  King,  and  the  expense  of 
keeping  up  these  establishments  and  the  other 
palaces  and  the  income  of  the  royal  family  may  be 
referred  to.  The  great  lords  of  England,  with  their 
castles  and  large  landed  or  city  estates,  rest  upon  the 
same  basis  of  primogeniture  and  heredity  as  the 
King. 

As  we  pass  later  to  the  treatment  of  the  govern- 
ment of  other  states  in  Europe,  we  shall  find  this 
fundamental  comparison  with  our  familiar  govern- 
ment at  Washington  the  essential  basis  of  interpreta- 
tion. In  France  we  find  a  republic. 

5.  In  Germany,  at  Berlin,  not  the  Reichstag  and 
Herrenhaus  are  the  main  objects  of  interest,  but  the 
palace  of  the  Emperor,  the  old  princely  Schloss,  and 


148  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  institutions  of  royalty.  The  Emperor,  or  Kaiser, 
plays  a  much  more  significant  r61e  than  the  King  o\ 
than  our  President.  Germany  is  still  largely  ruled  by 
its  princes,  though  the  power  of  the  legislature  is 
steadily  growing.  Moreover,  the  army  behind  the 
Emperor  is  much  more  necessary,  and  is  more  com- 
pletely under  the  control  of  one  man,  than  in  Eng- 
land, to  say  nothing  of  the  United  States.  The 
situation  of  Germany,  surrounded  by  powerful  and 
jealous  enemies,  is  favorable  to  royal  power  and  the 
maintenance  of  a  splendid  army. 

6.  When  we  come  to  Russia,  the  significance  of  ar- 
bitrary power  is  made  striking  and  prominent  by  the 
absence  of  a  legislature  in  which  the  people  are  repre- 
sented and  share  in  law-making.  The  concentration 
of  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  power  in  one  man 
furnishes  the  most  striking  contrast  to  our  system  of 
government ;  and  now  by  comparing  the  governments 
of  the  United  States,  England,  Germany,  and  Russia, 
we  are  able  to  mark  out  the  steps  that  show  the  dif- 
ferent grades  in  all  governments. 

In  the  natural  course  of  geographical  studies  we 
shall  have  occasion  thus  to  deal  definitely  six  or  seven 
times  with  government  as  a  topic.  Can  there  re- 
main any  doubt  that  the  method  of  comparison  by 
which  the  later  forms  of  Europe  and  Asia  are  com- 
pared step  by  step  with  our  own  government  and 
with  each  other  is  the  proper  manner  of  treatment  ? 
The  best  review  of  our  own  government  is  this  de- 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        149 

tailed  comparison  of  what  has  been  learned  of  our 
own  with  the  similar  and  yet  different  forms  of  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  Russia. 

A  SERIES  OF  STUDIES  ON  DESERTS 
THE  GREAT  BASIN  OF  UTAH  AND  NEVADA 

I.  Between  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado  on 
the  east  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California  on  the 
west  lies  a  region  of  desert  wastes,  salt  lakes,  and 
plateaus  cut  up  by  short  mountain-chains,  whose 
drainage  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea.  It  is  a  broken 
plateau  between  four  thousand  and  five  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  is  a  little  larger  than  France. 

On  the  south  lies  the  plateau  of  the  Colorado  River 
with  its  deep  canyons,  separated  by  only  a  slight  water- 
shed from  the  great  basin.  On  the  north  also  the 
watershed  between  the  Snake  River  and  the  great 
basin  is  irregular  and  difficult  to  determine. 

This  whole  region  is  arid,  having  only  a  slight  rain- 
fall, owing  to  the  high  Sierra  Nevada  range,  which 
intercepts  the  wet  winds  coming  from  the  Pacific  and 
causes  their  moisture  to  fall  in  rains  and  snows  upon 
the  Western  mountains.  As  these  winds  pass  over 
to  the  plateau,  they  are  mostly  dry. 

On  the  east,  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  chain  like- 
wise takes  most  of  the  moisture  out  of  the  winds  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

In  addition  to  these  causes  the  plateau  in  summer- 
time is  hot,  and  the  ascending  column  of  hot  air  dissi- 


150  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

pates  what  clouds  would  be  formed  over  the  plateau. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  southern  part  of  the  pla- 
teau and  in  the  Colorado  basin,  so  that  refreshing 
showers  are  also  cut  off  in  that  direction. 

Such  rains  as  do  fall  within  the  basin  are  mostly 
along  the  ridges  of  the  higher  mountain-chains,  such 
as  the  Wasatch  and  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  which  also  get  a  part  of  the  snows  and  rains 
from  the  Pacific.  From  these  mountain  slopes  de- 
scend the  streams  which  supply  the  salt  lakes  and 
sinks  with  water;  e.g.  Bear  River  and  the  Jordan, 
flowing  into  Salt  Lake;  the  Truckee  River,  flowing 
into  Pyramid  and  Winnemucca  lakes,  near  the  Sierra 
Nevada ;  and  the  Humboldt,  flowing  into  Hum- 
boldt  and  Carson  sinks  ;  also  the  Sevier  River  and 
Lake. 

Most  of  the  lower  mountain  ridges  crossing  this 
plateau  extend  from  north  to  south  and  are  barren, 
rising  precipitously  in  many  places  out  of  the  plateau. 
In  a  few  places  they  are  cut  through  by  rivers  form- 
ing gorges  through  which  the  railroads  pass  from  east 
to  west,  as,  for  example,  along  the  Bear  and  Hum- 
boldt rivers. 

Several  parts  of  this  plateau  are  distinctly  marked 
deserts,  as  is  the  large  tract  just  west  and  southwest  of 
Salt  Lake,  which  was  once  a  part  of  Salt  Lake  itself, 
when  the  water  was  more  abundant  and  extended ; 
also  the  Mohave  Desert,  with  its  dreary  valley,  partly 
below  sea-level  (called  Death  Valley),  in  south- 


TYPES   RUNNING  THROUGH  THE.  GRADES        151 

eastern  California.  In  the  early  caravan  days  to 
California  the  passage  of  the  pioneers  across  the 
deserts  of  Utah  was  marked  by  great  sufferings 
and  losses. 

Agriculture  is  possible  only  where  the  rivers  can 
be  used  as  irrigating  streams,  which  is  especially  the 
case  with  those  small  rivers  flowing  into  the  Great 
Salt  Lake.  Irrigation,  however,  takes  up  so  much  of 
the  river  waters  that  the  lakes  receive  but  a  small 
part,  and  are  much  reduced  in  size.  In  the  valleys 
where  irrigating  ditches  can  be  used  the  soil  is  pro- 
ductive. The  natural  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce crops. 

The  vegetation  of  these  plains  or  plateaus  is  very 
scanty  ;  the  sage-brush  (artemisia)  and  cacti  do  little 
to  enliven  the  dismal  appearance  of  these  dusty 
plains,  and  in  the  salty  and  rocky  deserts  even  these 
are  not  present. 

In  former  geological  ages  these  plateaus  received 
more  rain,  the  lakes  were  ten  times  as  large  as  now, 
and  had  outlets  to  the  Snake  River  and  Klamath  on 
the  north,  whose  old  channels  have  been  found.  The 
old  beach-levels  of  Salt  Lake  are  clearly  traced  on 
the  neighboring  mountains,  six  hundred  feet  above 
the  present  water  levels.  The  salt  and  soda  beds  of 
dried-up  lakes  are  found  as  deserts  where  once  stood 
the  lakes.  The  lakes,  having  no  outlet  to  the  sea, 
are  intensely  salt  or  alkaline. 

Only  the  higher  mountain  slopes  which  border  these 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

plateaus  and  receive  rains  are  covered  with  forests, 
especially  of  pine  and  other  evergreen.  On  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  are  also  found  oak  and 
deciduous  forests. 

In  the  later  study  of  Europe,  Asia,  South  America, 
and  Africa,  we  shall  meet  with  arid  tracts  or  deserts 
which  remind  us  strongly  of  the  conditions  in  the 
great  basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada. 

In  the  peninsula  of  Spain  and  Portugal  we  find  a 
central  plateau,  bordered  along  the  coasts  by  fruitful 
and  well-watered  lowlands  or  valleys.  As  the  winds 
move  toward  central  Spain,  they  drop  their  moisture  on 
the  fringing  mountain  slopes,  so  that  the  low  plateau 
upon  which  Madrid  is  built  is  almost  forbidding  in  its 
aridity. 

In  southern  Russia  and  Siberia,  in  the  depressions 
of  the  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas,  are  found  extensive 
salt  deserts  bordering  these  seas,  proclaiming,  as  in 
the  deserts  about  Salt  Lake  (only  on  a  more  extensive 
scale)  the  former  wide  extent  of  the  Caspian.  These 
salt  plains  about  the  Caspian  are  dreary  desert  wastes, 
hot  and  stifling  in  summer  and  bleak  and  cold  in  winter. 

The  great  desert  of  Sahara,  especially  the  western 
part,  south  of  the  Atlas  Mountains,  has  some  strong 
marks  of  resemblance  to  our  Western  basin.  The 
Atlas  Mountains  catch  the  moisture  brought  by  the 
western  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  The  small  streams 
flowing  southward  from  the  Atlas  Mountains  are 
lost  in  the  sands  of  the  Sahara,  like  those  from  the 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        153 

Sierra  Nevada.  At  some  points  the  desert  is  below 
the  sea-level,  and  shows  brackish  and  salt  lakes. 

The  hot,  blistering  sands  and  rocks  send  up  a 
column  of  heated  air  that  dissipates  any  clouds  that 
might  bring  rain  to  the  desert.  Only  where  mountain- 
chains  cross  the  desert,  as  the  Hogar  chain  that  sepa- 
rates the  western  Sahara  from  the  Libyan  wastes,  is 
there  rainfall.  A  part  of  the  year  these  mountains 
are  covered  with  snow,  and  streams  descend  from  the 
melting  snows  and  rains  and  are  lost  in  the  desert, 
creating  oases,  however,  and  fruitful  tracts. 

The  only  vegetation  found  in  the  deserts,  apart  from 
the  oases,  is  the  artemisia  and  thorny  mimosas,  cor- 
responding to  the  cacti  and  sage-brush  of  our  Western 
deserts.  In  the  Sahara,  also,  irrigation  from  the  short 
streams  and  from  artesian  wells  is  the  source  of  the 
groves  and  fruits  which  mark  the  scattered  oases. 

The  Sahara,  like  our  Western  deserts,  is  not  a  level 
plateau,  but  while  it  averages  about  2,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  a  small  district  south  of  Algeria  is  165  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  sea  and  is  the  bed  of  an  ancient 
salt  lake.  To  the  south  and  east  the  land  rises  into 
plateaus  and  mountains  from  3300  to  6600  feet  high. 
Many  ranges  of  rocky  ridges  and  mountains  or  sand- 
hills traverse  the  desert,  leaving  deep  valleys  between 
which  are  the  beds  of  ancient  lakes  or  rivers. 

Lying  farther  south  than  our  desert  tract,  it  is  much 
hotter,  and  the  vegetation  of  its  oases  is  tropical: 
date-palm,  orange,  and  tropical  fruits. 


154  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Sahara,  the  greatest  of  all  deserts,  is  about 
three  thousand  one  hundred  miles  from  east  to  west 
and  on  the  average  six  hundred  miles  wide,  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  size  of  Europe  ;  but  nearly  a  third  of  this 
vast  district  is  occupied  by  the  oases. 

But  the  Sahara  is  only  one  of  a  great  series  of 
deserts  extending  across  Asia  and  Africa.  Arabia, 
especially  in  its  southern  part,  is  one  plateau  desert 
with  smaller  wastes  to  the  north.  It  is  really  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Sahara,  only  slightly  interrupted  by 
the  narrow  strip  of  the  Nile  and  by  the  expanse  of  the 
Red  Sea. 

Still  farther  to  the  northeast,  "  the  principal  part 
of  the  plateau  of  Iran,  occupying  a  quadrilateral  space, 
surrounded  by  mountains  which  stop  the  rains  in  their 
passage,  consists  of  sterile  solitudes,  some  covered 
with  saline  beds,  the  remains  of  dried-up  lakes,  others 
spread  over  with  shifting  sands,  or  dotted  over  with 
reddish  colored  hills.  It  is  continued  toward  the 
east  by  the  deserts  of  Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan, 
which  are  not  so  large  and  much  easier  to  travel  over  " 
(Reclus). 

North  of  the  Himalayas,  after  touching  north- 
western India,  the  great  chain  of  deserts,  protected 
from  the  rain-bringing  winds  by  the  mighty  ridges 
of  mountains,  extends  across  Tibet  and  Mongolia. 
"The  eastern  part  of  this  belt  is  called  according  to 
the  language  Gobi  or  Chamo,  that  is  to  say,  the  desert 
par  excellence,  and  from  its  enormous  dimensions  cor- 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        155 

responds  with  the  Sahara  of  Africa,  situated  exactly 
at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  long  chain  of  solitudes 
which  stretches  right  across  the  old  world.  The 
mirage,  the  moving  sandhills  blown  up  into  eddies, 
and  many  other  phenomena  described  by  African 
travellers  are  found  in  certain  districts  of  the  Gobi, 
just  the  same  as  in  all  other  deserts.  But  the  cold 
here  is  exceptionally  intense,  on  account  of  the  great 
height  of  the  plateau,  which  is  on  an  average  4,950 
feet,  and  the  vicinity  of  the  plains  of  Siberia  which 
are  crossed  by  the  polar  wind.  It  freezes  nearly  every 
night  and  often  during  the  day.  The  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere  is  extreme,  there  is  hardly  any  vegetation, 
and  a  few  grassy  hollows  are  the  only  oases  of  these 
regions.  From  Kiakhta  to  Pekin  there  are  only  five 
trees  for  a  distance  of  400  to  500  miles,  which  is  the 
width  of  the  desert  in  this  part  of  Mongolia.  The 
Gobi,  however,  like  the  Sahara,  was  formerly  covered 
by  the  waters  of  the  ocean  ;  even  on  the  elevated 
plateaus  old  cliffs  may  be  noticed,  the  bases  of  which 
are  worn  away  by  the  waves,  and  long  strands  of 
rough  shingle  stretch  around  the  area  which  was 
formerly  occupied  by  a  now  vanished  gulf  "  (Reclus). 
This  study  of  deserts  and  arid  regions  in  America, 
Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  thus  briefly  suggested, 
offers  a  series  of  widely  separated,  yet  connected, 
lessons  which  should,  in  the  course  of  geographical 
study,  be  brought  together.  Every  time  one  of 
these  topics  relative  to  deserts  comes  up  for  full 


156  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

discussion,  a  set  of  comparisons  should  be  insti- 
tuted which  will  bring  to  clear  remembrance  the 
facts  previously  studied. 

With  the  area,  elevation,  salt  lakes,  and  deserts, 
vegetation,  mountains,  and  irrigation  of  our  great 
Western  desert  basin  as  a  standard  of  measurement 
we  may  estimate  and  compare  the  Sahara,  Arabia, 
the  salt  steppes  of  Russia,  and  the  desert  of  Gobi, 
and  by  striking  resemblances  and  noticeable  differ- 
ences acquire  a  body  of  definite  and  well-organized 
knowledge  of  this  large  geographical  topic. 

Bound  up  with  this  treatment  of  arid  regions  and 
deserts  are  the  subjects  of  irrigation,  salt  seas  having 
no  outlet,  and  caravan  trade  routes.  Moreover,  the 
subject  of  trade-winds  and  mountain  barriers,  inter- 
cepting the  moisture-laden  winds,  must  be  treated  in 
this  connection  as  chief  causes  in  producing  deserts. 
The  peculiar  life  of  the  desert  regions,  the  nomad 
and  Bedouin  tribes,  the  tent-dwellers,  wandering  from 
place  to  place  in  search  of  pastures,  and  the  remark- 
ably peculiar  fauna  and  flora  of  these  wastes,  must 
be  described  in  order  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  such 
lands  which,  in  spite  of  their  forbidding  aspect,  are 
still  the  homes  of  millions  of  men. 

The  relation  of  the  deserts  to  the  continents  as  a 
whole  and  to  the  equator,  and  their  obstruction  to 
commerce,  worse  than  the  hardships  of  high  moun- 
tains or  broad  oceans,  should  be  brought  clearly  into 
view. 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        157 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  an  elaborate  description  of 
our  great  Western  basin,  with  pictures  of  its  dreary 
wastes,  its  salt  lakes  and  salt  and  alkali  plains,  its 
broken  and  desolate  mountains,  its  dead  seas  and 
sinks,  its  canyons  and  gorges,  its  scanty  and  leafless 
vegetation,  its  small  patches  of  irrigated  gardens  and 
fields,  its  shrunken  and  disappearing  rivers,  its  scorch- 
ing and  glaring  heat  in  summer,  will  form  an  excel- 
lent groundwork  for  the  understanding  of  the  larger 
desert  plateaus  of  other  continents ;  especially  when 
the  causes  are  traced  to  the  bordering  mountains 
which  stand  sentinel  to  check  the  rain-bearing  winds, 
when  the  small  populations  and  difficult  trade  routes 
are  seen  as  the  results  of  the  surface,  climate,  and 
resources  of  the  country  thus  situated. 

It  is  possible  in  this  way,  by  building  up  around 
these  great  central  topics  from  year  to  year,  to  gather 
a  well-organized  body  of  knowledge.  By  constant 
comparison  of  new  with  old,  the  essential  facts  come 
more  clearly  and  prominently  into  view. 

A  SERIES  OF  STUDIES  ON  TRADE  CENTRES 

REVIEW  BY  COMPARISON 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  children  have  a  study  of 
Minneapolis  as  a  trade  centre  for  lumber  from  the 
pineries  of  the  North,  for  wheat  and  other  grain  from 
the  West,  and  for  manufactured  products  brought 
from  the  East,  which  are  distributed  from  Minne- 
apolis and  St.  Paul  as  centres  of  the  wholesale  trade. 


158  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  water-power  at  Minneapolis  is  especially  impor- 
tant for  the  flour-mills.  The  river  trade  finds  its  ter- 
minus at  St.  Paul.  The  railroad  and  water  routes 
from  the  twin  cities  via  Duluth  and  Chicago  carry 
the  staple  products,  especially  flour,  to  New  York 
and  Liverpool  and  to  other  parts  of  Europe.  This 
topic  is  fully  worked  out  in  the  fourth  grade. 

When,  later,  the  same  year,  Pittsburg  is  studied, 
they  will  compare  the  advantages  of  the  two  cities. 
Pittsburg  is  the  centre  for  the  great  iron  and  steel 
mills  of  western  Pennsylvania.  The  iron  is  obtained 
from  the  mountains,  and  the  coal  along  the  valleys  of 
the  Monongahela  and  other  streams  furnishes  fuel  for 
the  furnaces.  Northward  from  Pittsburg  lie  the  oil 
regions  which  supply  Pittsburg  with  another  raw 
material  for  its  refineries.  The  glass-factories,  re- 
quiring other  raw  materials,  are  also  very  important 
at  Pittsburg. 

The  Ohio  River  supplies  an  excellent  means  of 
cheap  transportation  for  the  coal,  oil,  iron  products, 
glass,  etc.,  of  Pittsburg.  A  comparison  of  Pittsburg 
and  its  surrounding  cities  with  Minneapolis  and  St. 
Paul  will  bring  out  the  striking  points  in  each  case 
more  clearly. 

i.  As  centres  for  raw  products  to  be  manufactured 
into  higher  forms.  Minneapolis :  logs,  wheat,  and 
grain.  Pittsburg :  iron,  coal,  petroleum,  and  sand 
for  glass.  Pittsburg  also  receives  some  lumber, 
which  comes  down  from  the  mountains  via  the 


TYPES   RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        159 

Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers.  Both  Pitts- 
burg  and  St.  Paul  are  at  the  head  of  steamboat 
navigation  ;  and  yet,  in  both  cases,  the  upper  rivers 
are  used  for  small  steamboats  —  for  coal  barges  and 
rafts  on  the  Monongahela,  and  for  lumber  rafts  and 
rafting  steamers  on  the  upper  Mississippi. 

2.  Manufactured  products.     For  Minneapolis  and 
St.  Paul,  flour,  lumber,  barrels,  furniture,  agricultural 
implements,  and  some  lesser  ones,  as  boots  and  shoes. 
Pittsburg :  steel  rails,  armor  plates,   pig-iron,  illumi- 
nating oil,  benzine,  vaseline,  glassware,  lumber,  coke, 
etc. 

3.  The  trade  facilities  by  railroad  and  by  river. 
Notice   on  a  railroad  map  the   important   railroads 
centring   in    each  of  these  cities ;  for  example,  the 
Pennsylvania    Central   at    Pittsburg;    the   Chicago, 
Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  at  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis. 

4.  Both  sites  of  these  cities  are  historically  inter- 
esting; Fort  Duquesne,  changed  afterward  to  Fort 
Pitt,  being  the  most  interesting  historical  point  in 
the  Ohio  Valley ;  Fort  Snelling,  at  the  junction  of 
the   Mississippi  and  Minnesota  rivers,  is  of  special 
importance  in  the  history  of  the  Northwest. 

5.  Compare  the   population   of   Minneapolis   and 
St.  Paul  with  that  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  :  — 

1900  1900 

Minneapolis  ....  202,718  Pittsburg  ....  321,616 
St.  Paul 163,065  Allegheny  ....  129,896 

365,783  45I»512 


I6O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

A  similar  comparison  may  be  made  with  Albany 
and  Troy  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson. 
Albany  is  important — 

1.  On  account  of  the  commerce  along  the   Erie 
Canal  and  the  great  railroad  traffic  from  Buffalo  to 
Albany  and  New  York. 

2.  The  canal  connecting  Lake  Champlain  with  the 
upper  Hudson  brings  the  lumber  of  the  North  in  large 
quantity  to  Albany. 

Pittsburg  also  has  a  canal  connection  with  Lake 
Erie  by  way  of  Beaver  River  to  Erie.  Albany  and 
St.  Paul  are  capitals  of  the  states  and  the  head  of 
navigation  of  rivers.  The  population  of  Albany  is 
94,923  and  of  Troy  60,956.  The  railroad  from  Al- 
bany to  Boston  passes  through  the  Hoosac  Tunnel, 
one  of  the  great  engineering  feats.  The  railroad  from 
Pittsburg  to  Philadelphia  crosses  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  through  fine  mountain  scenery. 

When  we  come  to  Europe,  we  shall  find  some  other 
cities  located  like  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  Pittsburg 
and  Albany,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  of 
important  rivers,  e.g.  Lyons  in  southeastern  France, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone  rivers.  Lyons 
is  located  like  Pittsburg,  partly  on  the  low  plain  be- 
tween the  two  rivers  and  partly  on  the  hills  back  of  it. 
It  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the  trade  from  Switzerland, 
coming  from  Geneva,  down  the  valley  of  the  Rhone, 
and  also  for  the.  commerce  with  the  north  of  France, 
via  the  Saone  River,  whose  upper  waters  are  connected 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        l6l 

by  canal  with  the  Seine  and  with  the  Rhine.  One  oi 
the  great  railroads  of  France  runs  from  Paris  to  Lyons 
and  Marseilles.  Lyons  draws  the  raw  materials  for 
its  great  manufacture  of  silk  goods  from  its  own 
neighborhood.  The  river  furnishes  excellent  shipping 
facilities  toward  the  south  via  Marseilles  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries.  The  population  of  Lyons  in  1896 
was  466,028.  Lyons  is  also  a  fortified  city,  having  a 
circuit  of  defences  extending  thirteen  miles  from  the 
city.  It  has  always  been  during  two  thousand  years 
a  centre  of  trade  up  and  down  the  Rhone  and  Saone 
valleys. 

The  points  of  similarity  between  Pittsburg  and 
Lyons  are  quite  noticeable,  including  its  location  on 
the  flat  land  at  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers ;  its  ex- 
cellent commercial  outlet  down  the  river ;  its  canals 
and  slack-water  navigation  in  the  upper  streams ;  its 
military  importance;  its  manufactories.  Compare 
also  with  London,  Bordeaux,  Hamburg,  and  Budapest. 

One  of  the  important  topics  for  study  in  the  United 
States  geography  is  the  Hudson  River,  and  in  Europe, 
also,  the  Rhine  forms  an  equally  important  subject. 
After  they  have  both  been  studied,  a  comparison  as 
follows  will  form  such  a  review  as  will  be  interesting 
and  thought-producing :  — 

i.  Their  commercial  importance.  In  both  cases 
these  two  rivers  are  great  traffic  routes,  first  by 
water,  and  second  by  rail.  Important  railroad  lines 
run  through  both  the  valleys.  The  Hudson  has  three 


1 62  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

important  canals  connecting  it  with  Lake  Champlain 
and  the  St.  Lawrence,  with  Lake  Erie  and  the  West, 
and  with  the  coal  regions  of  northwestern  Pennsylva- 
nia. The  Rhine  also  has  three  canals  connecting  its 
upper  waters  with  the  Danube  and  the  Rhone  and 
the  Seine.  The  Rhine  has  always  been  the  great 
central  traffic  route  between  Northern  Europe  and 
Southern  or  Southeastern  Europe.  The  Hudson 
with  the  Mohawk  is  the  great  traffic  route  be- 
tween the  Lake  states  of  the  Northwest  and 
New  York. 

2.  The  cities.  The  number  of  large  cities  on  the 
Rhine,  as  Rotterdam,  Cologne,  Frankfurt,  Strassburg, 
Basel,  Zurich,  etc.,  is  greater  than  on  the  Hudson, 
but  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  on  account  of  their  size 
and  commercial  importance,  would  surpass  all  the 
cities  of  the  Rhine.  In  extent  the  Rhine  is  eight  hun- 
dred miles  long,  the  Hudson  two  hundred  seventy- 
five,  but  the  Hudson  is  a  much  larger  and  deeper 
river  than  the  Rhine.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
valley  of  the  Hudson  is  a  drowned  valley,  the  sea  hav- 
ing flowed  in  and  filled  it  up  with  the  sinking  of  the 
coast  lands.  The  Rhine,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  delta 
river  which  has  built  up  out  of  the  sea  a  large  area  of 
lowland  in  Holland.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  they 
are  opposites.  The  navigable  portion  of  the  Rhine 
is  much  longer.  The  Rhine  is  navigable  below  the 
falls  of  Schaffhausen,  although  that  part  of  the  river 
flowing  through  the  broad  valley  from  Strassburg  to 


TYPES  RUNNING  THROUGH  THE  GRADES        163 

Mayence   is  obstructed  with   shallows.     The   upper 
Hudson  also  has  shallows. 

3.  In  point  of  scenery  the  Rhine  and  the  Hudson 
both  have  great  attractions  ;  the  Palisades,  the  High- 
lands and  the  Catskills  furnish  even  more  grand  and 
impressive  sights  than  the  Rhine  between  Cologne 
and  Bingen.    But  ancient  castles  and  churches  are  not 
reproduced  on  the  Hudson.     Both  rivers  rise  in  the 
mountains,  the  Alps  being  much  the  higher.     The 
Rhine  springs  from  the  foot  of  glaciers,  the  Hudson 
from  deep  lakes  of  the  Adirondacks. 

4.  Both  rivers  are  famous  in  history.     The  Rhine 
was   crossed  by  Caesar,  Charlemagne,   Louis  XIV, 
Napoleon  I,  and  William  I  of  Germany.     The  Rhine 
being  on   the  boundary   line  between   France   and 
Germany,  has  been  the  scene  of  many  great  military 
campaigns.     Its  chief  cities,  Cologne,  Coblenz,  Ma- 
yence, and  Strassburg,  are  strongly  fortified.     The 
Hudson,  also,  during  the  French  and  Indian  wars  and 
the  Revolution,  had  great  military  importance. 

5.  Both  rivers,  also,  have  an  important  place  in  liter- 
ature.   Irving  with  his  legends  has  made  the  valley  of 
the  Hudson  famous.     And  the  old  Indian  stories  fur- 
nish still  other  legendary  material.     The  Rhine  has 
been  famous  in  song  and  story  for  thousands  of  years. 
The  Nibelungen  song  belongs  mainly  to  this  valley. 
Both  Goethe  and  Schiller,  greatest  of  German  poets, 
were  born  and  raised  in  this  valley. 

Such  comparison  as  this  brings  into  distinct  prom- 


1 64  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

inence  the  points  both  of  likeness  and  of  difference. 
If  these  points  are  stated  in  the  form  of  questions, 
the  children  will  solve  many  problems  of  interest,  and 
will  learn  to  measure,  to  estimate,  and  to  organize 
their  knowledge.  Later  in  the  geographical  studies 
of  the  children  they  may  have  occasion  to  compare 
the  Danube,  the  Po,  the  Indus,  and  other  rivers  with 
the  Rhine  and  the  Hudson.  In  the  same  way,  on  a 
larger  scale,  the  Mississippi  River  with  its  tributaries 
will  offer  a  standard  with  which  to  compare  the  other 
great  rivers  of  the  world,  as  the  Volga,  the  Yangtse, 
the  Nile,  the  Congo,  and  the  Amazon.  The  different 
functions  and  characters  of  great  river  valleys  will 
thus  be  brought  out  with  distinctness. 

In  a  similar  way  a  study  of  Pikes  Peak  and  the  sur- 
rounding mountains  as  illustrating  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain system  may  be  compared  with  Mont  Blanc 
and  the  Alps,  Mount  Everest  and  the  Himalayas, 
and  Chimborazo  and  the  Andes. 

If  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Colorado  have  been 
studied  by  the  children,  they  should  be  first  compared 
with  the  other  gold-bearing  districts  in  our  own  coun- 
try— California,  Nevada,  Montana,  and  the  Klon- 
dike —  and  afterward  in  the  course  of  study  with  the 
mines  in  South  Africa,  Australia,  and  Russia.  This  will 
bring  the  knowledge  of  the  whole  subject  of  gold  and 
silver  mining  into  a  certain  completeness  and  unity. 


CHAPTER   XI 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED 

THIRD  GRADE — HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Simple,  primary  types 

I.    Building  materials. 

Excursion  to  a  house  in  process  of  construction. 

Outline.  Foundation  and  floor  plan.  Draw  plan. 
Work  of  excavation.  Brick  and  stone  masons.  Base- 
ment windows,  doors.  Drainage,  etc.  The  frame- 
work of  the  house ;  beams,  joists,  studding,  rafters, 
siding,  partitions.  Plan  of  rooms.  Heating,  plumb- 
ing, gas-pipes,  or  wires  for  lighting.  Water-supply. 
Connection  with  sewer.  Door  and  window  frames. 
Stairs.  Floors.  Plastering.  Making  of  plaster ;  lime, 
sand,  hair.  Interior  finish.  Oak  and  hard  woods. 
Varnishing.  Chimneys,  fireplaces.  Plan  of  heating. 
Tinning,  spouting,  roofing.  Painting,  interior  and  ex- 
terior. Ingredients  of  paints.  Tinting,  decorating, 
papering,  frescoing.  Yard  and  lawn  ;  walks,  trees. 

Several  excursions  at  different  times  in  the  process 
of  constructing  and  completing  a  house  are  made. 
The  observations  made  upon  these  trips  are  later  fully 
discussed  in  the  class  room. 

165 


1 66  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  different  kinds  of  trades  and  tools  employed  in 
the  building  are  noticed,  such  as  masons,  carpenters, 
plumbers,  painters,  tinners,  architect,  plasterer,  and 
decorator.  The  shops,  quarries,  and  mills  from  which 
building  materials  are  obtained,  should  be  mentioned 
and  located,  e.g.  the  carpenter  shop,  planing-mill,  tin- 
shop,  the  stone  quarry,  the  brick  yard  and  kiln.  The 
close  dependence  of  all  the  different  trades  upon  one 
another  may  be  observed.  The  cost  of  materials  and 
wages  of  men  may  be  discussed  to  some  extent. 
Frequent  drawings  on  the  blackboard  to  illustrate 
points  discussed  are  helpful. 

2.    Excursions  to  a  garden  and  farm. 

Visits  to  a  near  garden  in  springtime  to  note  the 
turning  of  the  soil,  planting,  and  growth  of  vegetables, 
such  as  corn,  onions,  lettuce,  radishes,  asparagus,  po- 
tatoes, beets,  tomatoes,  cabbage,  celery,  etc.  Two  or 
three  of  these  should  be  followed  through  the  season. 
A  school  garden  is  the  best  means  of  following  up 
this  work,  and  gives  the  children  a  chance  to  partici- 
pate. The  use  of  the  hotbed  for  obtaining  early 
cabbages,  and  tomatoes  is  worth  studying.  The  treat- 
ment and  fertilizing  of  soils  may  be  observed. 

In  the  fall,  excursions  to  the  garden  to  see  the 
crops  and  their  gathering  in  are  instructive,  e.g.  dig- 
ging potatoes  and  root  crops,  the  picking  and  mar- 
keting of  tomatoes,  cabbages,  and  celery.  The 
berries  and  small  fruits  are  equally  interesting. 

A  visit  to  a  nursery  for  fruit  and  shade  trees,  both 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  167 

in  spring  and  fall,  is  very  interesting,  and  in  winter 
the  budding  and  grafting  may  be  observed.  A  visit 
to  a  typical  farm  to  see  the  different  fields  of  grain, 
pasture,  and  woodland,  the  kinds  and  care  of  stock, 
the  barns,  and  granaries,  the  machines  and  tools  em- 
ployed, will  be  very  instructive.  In  this  connection  a 
visit  to  an  agricultural  implement  store  is  also  helpful. 
Upon  all  these  outdoor  excursions,  there  is  op- 
portunity for  incidental  observation  of  the  open 
country,  fields,  woods,  streams,  hills,  soils,  roads, 
bridges,  and  various  occupations  and  industries. 

3.  Clothing  and  industries  related  to  clothing. 

Sheep-raising  and  wool.  Cattle  and  hides.  Tan- 
ning of  skins.  The  spinning  and  weaving  of  cloth. 
Visit  to  a  carpet-weaver's.  Note  machinery  used. 
Cotton  or  woollen  mill.  The  tailor  shop.  The  dress- 
maker's. The  milliner's.  The  clothing  store.  The  dry- 
goods  store.  Variety  of  goods  sold,  as  cotton  cloth, 
linen,  silk,  lace,  woollens,  and  straw.  Shoe-factory. 
(Excursion  reserved  for  fourth  grade.) 

In  the  third  grade  a  study  of  raw  material  of  clothing 
and  their  production  and  treatment  as  illustrated  in 
the  home  district  and  in  carpet- weaving  are  in  place. 
The  more  complex  processes  of  manufacture  are  too 
difficult. 

4.  Excursions  to  shops  and  stores. 

Visit  to  a  fruit  store.  Kinds  of  fruits,  etc.  The 
bakery  and  the  baking  oven.  The  blacksmith's  shop 
and  the  wagon-maker's  shop.  The  grist-mill.  Mill- 


168  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

pond  and  mill-race.  The  wheel.  The  elevator  and 
the  loading  and  storage  of  grain.  The  grocery  store. 
Variety  of  products.  Visit  to  the  park  or  to  the 
woods.  These  excursions  are  carefully  planned  and 
later  fully  discussed  in  the  class. 

5.  Incidental  extension  of  the  above  topics  into 
other  states  and  to  foreign  lands. 

From  the  lumber-yard  to  the  Northern  pineries,  also 
to  the  yellow-pine  woods  of  the  Southern  states.  Oak 
and  other  hard  woods  from  the  Ohio  Valley.  From 
the  fruit  store  we  may  trace  the  orange  to  Florida 
and  California,  peaches  to  Michigan  and  New  Jersey, 
apples  to  New  York,  Missouri,  etc.,  grapes  to  Cali- 
fornia and  New  York,  bananas  to  Jamaica.  Codfish 
are  referred  to  the  fishing-banks,  oysters  to  the 
Chesapeake  and  Long  Island  Sound,  salmon  to  the 
Columbia  River. 

The  flour  in  the  grocery  store  may  be  traced  to 
Minneapolis  and  the  wheat-fields  of  the  Northwest. 
Salt  comes  from  New  York  and  Michigan,  sugar 
from  Louisiana,  Hawaii,  and  Cuba.  Meats  from  the 
corn  regions  of  the  middle  West,  from  Kansas  City, 
Chicago,  etc.  Fine  building-stone  is  obtained  from 
Indiana,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  etc. 

Coffee  may  be  traced  to  Brazil,  tea  to  China  and 
Japan,  fine  chinas  to  France  and  Germany. 

Gold  and  silver  are  referred  to  the  mines  of  Colo- 
rado and  California,  hard  coal  to  Pennsylvania,  coal-oil 
to  Pennsylvania,  Texas,  and  California.  In  locating 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  169 

the  sources  from  which  these  products  come  it  is 
hardly  advisable  to  enter  into  any  full  treatment  of 
the  modes  of  production.  This  full  descriptive  treat- 
ment will  be  given  in  the  following  years.  The  loca- 
tion of  such  regions  is  easily  and  quickly  made  upon 
large  wall  maps  or  by  blackboard  sketches.  It  is 
merely  incidental  to  the  treatment  of  home  topics. 

6.  Local  map-making. 

Beginning  with  the  schoolhouse  and  grounds, 
make  a  simple  map  of  the  town  and  neighborhood 
with  two  or  three  streets  and  a  few  roads  leading 
into  the  country.  The  creek  or  river  is  included 
and  the  railroads  to  neighboring  towns.  Use  sand 
maps  also  to  express  surface  irregularities,  and  let  the 
points  of  the  compass  be  taught  incidentally.  After 
a  little  practice  the  maps  can  be  drawn  to  a  scale. 

7.  Primitive  peoples  and  occupations. 

America  supplies  three  good  types  of  primitive 
life, — the  Eskimo  of  the  North,  their  houses,  hunting, 
and  modes  of  life ;  the  Indians  as  described  by  Park- 
man,  Starr,  and  other  travellers  ;  and  the  Zuni  Indians 
of  the  Southwest  and  of  Mexico. 

The  "Seven  Little  Sisters"  and  "Each  and  All" 
furnish  simple  descriptions  of  life  in  the  chief  re- 
gions of  the  world  for  third-grade  children  getting 
their  first  notions  of  distant  peoples  and  countries. 
They  can  be  read  by  the  teacher,  discussed,  and  as  far 
as  possible  illustrated  by  pictures,  cardboard,  and 
other  constructions. 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

8.  Study  of  the  world-whole. 

The  largest  globes  available  should  be  used 
Children  enjoy  thinking  of  the  earth  as  a  large  globe, 
and  finding  the  continents  and  oceans.  The  location 
of  all  the  chief  countries  with  reference  to  North 
America  and  the  home,  and  the  familiarity  with  the 
cardinal  directions,  may  be  accomplished  in  a  few 
lively  oral  lessons. 

9.  Related  topics  in  history. 

Local  history,  grandfather  stories,  family  histo- 
ries, leading  men  and  families.  The  early  pioneers 
and  settlers.  Their  houses.  Regions  from  which 
they  came  and  modes  of  travel  at  that  time.  Early 
roads.  Indian  stories  and  traditions  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  Improvements,  such  as  roads,  bridges, 
schoolhouses,  railroads,  etc.  Historical  relics,  pub- 
lic buildings,  monuments,  museums.  Places  of  his- 
toric interest.  Historical  celebrations,  Decoration 
Day,  Thanksgiving,  etc. 

10.  Closely  related  science  topics. 

Garden  vegetables,  grasses,  and  grains.  Hot- 
house plants,  forest  trees.  Fruit  trees,  budding  and 
grafting.  Tree-planting.  The  changes  of  the  sea- 
sons. Plant  and  animal  life  in  ponds  and  creeks. 
Various  soils,  sands,  rocks,  and  their  uses.  Quarries 
and  stratified  rock.  The  water-supply,  and  pure 
water,  wells,  springs.  Domestic  animals  and  their 
uses. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  171 

FOURTH  GRADE.  —  HOME  GEOGRAPHY  (Continued') 

1.  Local  physiography. 

Excursions  for  the  examination  of  landscapes,  hills, 
valleys,  streams,  and  tributaries.  Water  action  upon 
soils,  rocks,  and  valleys.  Soils  upon  uplands  and  low- 
lands and  effects  upon  vegetation.  Rich  bottom-lands. 
Modes  of  fertilizing  fields,  rotation  of  crops.  Rock 
strata  along  streams  and  valley  slopes.  Deposits 
of  sand  gravel  and  glacial  drift.  Note  the  influence 
of  valleys  and  hills  upon  the  location  of  towns, 
bridges,  course  of  railroads,  wagon  roads.  General 
views  from  commanding  points  on  hills  or  bluffs  or 
high  buildings  over  town  and  country.  Climate  and 
seasons,  seasonal  changes.  Effects  of  rain-storms 
and  floods.  Spring  freshets.  Snow-storms  and  ice. 
Winds.  Movements  of  the  sun  and  moon  and  the 
varying  length  of  day  and  night.  The  effect  of 
changing  seasons  upon  the  occupations  of  men. 

2.  Local  commerce. 

The  town  as  a  local  trade  centre.  Roads  leading 
into  the  country.  Products  of  farms,  gardens,  and 
forests  brought  into  town.  Railroads,  freight  offices, 
and  shipment  of  goods.  Local  factories  and  their 
shipments.  Goods  retailed  to  town  and  country 
people.  A  small  town  is  the  best  illustration  for 
children  of  a  trade  centre.  A  county-seat  is  usually 
the  best  example  of  a  trade  centre  for  all  the  roads 
of  the  county. 


1^2  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

3.  Local  government. 

The  town  council  and  how  chosen.  The  mayor 
and  his  duties.  Town  ordinances  in  regard  to  police, 
roads,  and  bridges,  gas  or  electric  lighting,  licenses, 
fire-department,  etc.  Local  magistrates'  and  justices' 
courts.  Local  taxation  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is 
put.  The  court-house,  county  court,  and  trials. 
Judges  and  juries.  County  records  in  court-house. 
In  the  home  geography,  government  should  deal  with 
well-known  people  and  objects  which  illustrate  the 
facts  of  law-making,  taxes,  election,  office-holding, 
and  other  duties  of  magistrates.  In  other  words  it 
should  be  very  concrete  and  illustrative. 

4.  Large  manufacturing  plants. 

Visits  to  shoe-factories,  planing-mills,  railroad  shops, 
founderies,  grist-mills,  furniture  factories,  printing- 
offices,  waterworks,  cotton  or  woollen  mills,  carriage 
factories,  canneries  for  fruit  or  vegetables,  wholesale 
houses,  tile-works,  and  potteries,  ship-yards,  dairies, 
sugar-factories,  etc. 

These  more  complex  forms  of  industrial  life  are 
better  visited  in  the  fourth  grade  than  in  the  third, 
and  some  of  them  belong  in  still  later  years.  There 
should  be  a  discussion  in  the  class  after  each  excur- 
sion, with  such  drawings  and  pictures  as  are  neces- 
sary. 

5.  A  few  leading  topics  of  the  home  state. 

This  is  the  first  step  in  the  outward  movement  from 
the  home.  The  more  striking  and  less  difficult  topics 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED     173 

call  for  a  very  complete  description.  In  New  York 
State,  for  example,  the  following  may  serve.  The 
Hudson  River,  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  the  Erie 
Canal,  fruit-growing  (apples  and  grapes),  dairying, 
Lake  Ontario.  In  the  state  of  Illinois  (treated  as  the 
home),  the  list  of  topics  may  be  as  follows  :  the 
Illinois  River,  the  prairies,  the  corn-fields,  the  Illinois 
and  Michigan  Canal  (also  the  Drainage  Canal). 

The  map  of  the  state  will  be  used  freely  and 
sketched  often  in  outline  on  the  board. 

6.  The  relief  map  of  North  America. 

A  sand  map  representing  the  chief  plains  and  high- 
lands of  North  America.  It  can  be  made  by  the 
teacher  while  describing  the  continent  in  its  main 
features.  The  treatment  should  be  brief  and  simple, 
and  the  ideas  gained  will  help  to  interpret  the  flat 
maps. 

7.  Large,  descriptive  topics  of  North  America. 

A  few  such  bold  topics  capable  of  picturesque  por- 
traiture may  give  correct  primary  notions  of  moun- 
tains, river  valleys,  coast  scenery,  forests,  lakes,  cities, 
plains,  etc.  Large  pictures  and  bird's-eye  views,  pan- 
oramic surveys,  and  landscapes  may  be  secured.  Pho- 
tographs and  stereoscopic  views  of  notable  scenery 
are  not  difficult  to  secure,  and  the  geographies  con- 
tain many  suitable  pictures. 

Topics:  scenes  and  descriptions  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Labrador  to  Florida,  —  capes  and  head- 
lands, fishing-fleets,  beaches,  and  bathing  resorts, 


174  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

light-houses,  harbors,  and  cities,  islands,  rocky  coasts, 
bays,  and  river  mouths.  A  steamboat  trip  down  the 
Mississippi  River  from  the  Northern  lakes  to  the  delta, 
with  pictures.  Scenes  from  the  Appalachian  High- 
lands. Cattle-ranches  in  the  plains  and  foot-hills. 
The  Yellowstone  Park  and  other  parks  and  scenes 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A  summer  among  the 
woods  and  mountains  of  Maine.  A  winter  in  Florida. 
The  plateau  of  Mexico. 

8.  Journeys  round  the  world. 

A  trip  around  the  world  on  the  parallel  of  the  home. 
This  forms  an  interesting  base-line,  on  each  side  of 
which  cities  and  countries  can  be  ranged,  and  a  help- 
ful comparison  of  diverse  countries  be  made. 

A  trip  around  the  world  on  a  meridian.  This 
brings  out  all  the  contrasts  of  climate,  the  similarity 
of  Northern  and  Southern  hemispheres  and  the  dif- 
ferences. 

Steamboat  voyage  around  the  world.  This  is  a 
means  of  discovering  the  position  of  different  conti- 
nents and  oceans  and  some  of  the  peculiar  things  of 
ocean  navigation.  These  three  excursions  may  serve 
to  give  the  children  a  more  definite  idea  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  world-whole.  Pictures  should  be  freely 
used. 

9.  Geography  topics  suggested  by  "American  His- 
tory Stories." 

After  completing  a  history  story,  a  lesson  may 
well  be  given,  surveying  more  fully  the  geographical 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  175 

conditions  involved  in  the  story.  For  example, 
after  completing  Champlain's  voyages  and  explora- 
tions a  careful  survey  of  the  geography  of  the 
whole,  the  St.  Lawrence,  Nova  Scotia,  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  the  Ottawa  River,  the  homes  of  the  Iro- 
quois  and  Hurons,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  France, 
will  greatly  strengthen  both  the  geography  and  the 
history. 

Other  stories  for  a  similar  historical  review  are 
Hudson's  voyages  and  explorations,  the  Pilgrims 
and  the  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  Captain  John 
Smith  and  his  exploring  trips,  Boone  and  the  passes 
of  the  Alleghanies,  Raleigh's  expeditions,  Washing- 
ton's early  life. 

10.  Geographical  surveys  suggested  by  European 
history  stories  and  the  Bible  stories. 

The  stories  of  Abraham,  Joseph,  and  David.  Early 
Italian  stories  of  Rome.  Julius  Ceesar  in  Gaul  and 
England.  King  Alfred  and  the  Danes.  The  Angles 
and  Saxons. 

In  all  these  early  history  stories  of  Europe,  a 
distinct  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  geog- 
raphy. The  transfer  of  this  careful  survey  to  the 
geography  proper  will  insure  a  definite  comprehen- 
sion of  the  geographical  situations.  In  all  cases 
maps  and  blackboard  sketches  should  be  freely  used. 
Pictures  and  sand  maps,  and  all  the  means  of  con- 
crete illustration  are  needed  to  insure  clear  and 
correct  notions. 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

FIFTH  GRADE 
Simpler  Type  Studies  of  the  United  States 

This  includes  topics  of  a  pronounced  physical 
character,  the  chief  raw  productions  in  agricul. 
ture,  mining,  and  forestry,  a  few  cities  as  trade 
centres,  and  the  state  government.  The  more  com- 
plicated topics  of  manufacturing  and  commerce  of 
the  United  States  and  the  more  complete  survey 
of  the  physiography  of  North  America  can  be  re- 
served for  the  sixth  grade.  In  each  part  of  the 
United  States  the  topics  can  be  arranged  in  such 
order  as  best  suits  the  movement  from  the  home 
state  outward. 

1.  Mount  Washington  and  the  White  Mountains. 
This  region  as  a  summer  resort.     Journey  to  the 

top.  Views.  The  Presidential  Range.  The  lakes 
and  streams.  Neighboring  resorts  and  points  of  in- 
terest. Comparison  with  the  Adirondacks. 

2.  Niagara  Falls. 

Lay  of  the  land  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  On- 
tario. Map  and  description  of  the  falls.  Pictures. 
The  gorge,  rapids,  and  whirlpool.  Recession  of 
the  falls.  Obstruction  of  commerce  by  the  falls. 
Canals.  Use  of  the  water-power. 

3.  The  Alleghany  Mountains. 

Rivers  that  break  through  the  mountains.  Passes. 
Delaware,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  James.  Scenery 
of  mountains,  river  cuts,  railroads,  etc.  Forests,  lum- 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  177 

bering.  Water-power.  Mining.  Chief  mountain 
peaks.  Mineral  springs  and  resorts. 

4.  The  Hoosac  Tunnel. 

Expense  and  difficulties  of  construction.  The 
mountain  ridge  of  the  Berkshire  Hills.  Importance 
of  the  tunnel  to  Boston  and  Massachusetts.  Later 
comparison  with  tunnels  in  the  Alleghanies. 

5.  The  oyster  fisheries. 

Oyster-farms  in  Long  Island  Sound  and  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay.  The  process  of  growing  and  gather- 
ing oysters.  Oyster  boats  and  fishermen.  Packing 
and  shipping  of  oysters.  Other  oyster-beds  along  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

6.  Location  and  description  of  a  coal  mine. 
Sinking  the  shaft,  difficulties  and  expense.     The 

ventilation  of  a  coal  mine.  Necessity  for  it.  The 
dangers  in  mining,  caving  in,  floods,  explosions, 
fires.  The  coal-breaker,  in  the  hard-coal  regions. 
Machinery  for  hoisting,  pumping,  etc.  Location 
and  extent  of  coal  fields  in  Pennsylvania.  Other 
coal  fields  in  the  United  States.  Relation  of 
coal  production  to  manufacturing,  commerce,  and 
domestic  use.  Cities  as  centres  of  coal  shipment 
and  use,  as  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Erie,  Philadelphia, 
St.  Louis,  New  York.  Shipment  by  water  and  by 
rail. 

7.  The  iron  mines  of  Michigan. 

Location  and  description  of  iron  mines.  Great  ore 
docks  and  loading  of  ships.  Transportation  to  Chi- 


1/8  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

cago,  Detroit,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  etc.     Relation  of 
iron  mines  to  coal  mines. 

8.  The  blast-furnace. 

Structure  of  the  furnace.  Coke,  lime,  and  ore. 
Heating  and  smelting.  Drawing  of  the  molten 
metal,  pig-iron.  Uses  of  pig-iron  in  iron  manu- 
facture for  railroad  iron,  stoves,  and  furnaces,  wire- 
mills,  bridges,  guns,  etc.  Location  of  blast-furnaces 
at  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  Chicago,  Birmingham,  Buf- 
falo, etc. 

9.  Pittsburg  as  a  trade  centre. 

Advantages  for  iron  manufacture.  Neighboring 
manufacturing  towns.  Coke-ovens.  Oil-refining 
and  glass-making.  Advantages  of  river  for  coal 
and  iron  shipment,  etc.  Railroad  centre. 

10.  Lake  Superior. 

Location,  area,  and  depth  of  the  lake.  Tributary 
rivers  and  the  area  drained.  Scenery  on  the  lake- 
shores.  Cliffs,  woods,  islands.  Cities  and  harbors. 
Marquette,  Duluth,  etc.  Commerce  and  shipping 
of  the  lake.  Storms,  fogs,  and  winter  upon  the 
lake.  Dangers  of  navigation,  season  of  navigation. 
Falls  of  St.  Marys  and  locks.  Steamers  and  whale- 
backs.  Comparison  of  Lake  Superior  with  other 
great  lakes  in  size,  depth,  climate,  commerce,  cities. 

1 1 .  Tobacco-raising  in  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 
Steps  in  the   cultivation  of   the   crop.      Soil  and 

effects  of  tobacco  culture  on  the  soil.     Louisville  as  a 
centre  for  the  tobacco  trade.     Tobacco  production  in 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  179 

other  states  and  in  Cuba.  History  of  tobacco-raising 
in  the  United  States. 

12.  Cotton  plantations  in  the  South. 

Raising  and  picking  of  cotton.  Negro  labor.  The 
cotton-gin,  baling.  History.  Shipment  of  cotton 
by  rail  and  by  steamboat  to  New  England  and  to 
Europe.  Cotton-seed  and  cotton-seed  oil.  Locate 
the  cotton  belt  by  states.  Cotton  mills  in  the  South. 

13.  Hardwood  forests  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 

The  original  forests  of  this  region.  Labor  of  the 
pioneers  in  clearing  the  forests.  Game.  Hardships. 
Log  houses.  Bad  roads.  Present  forests  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  and  Tennessee. 
Lumber  business,  sawmills.  Kinds  of  lumber. 
Effects  of  the  destruction  of  the  forests. 

14.  The   pineries   and   lumbering   on   the   upper 
Mississippi. 

Logging-camp  in  winter.  Uses  of  the  snow.  Skid- 
ding, and  log  piles  on  the  banks  of  streams.  Melting 
snows  and  rafting  of  the  spring.  Sawmills  and 
planing-mills.  Forest  fires  and  great  losses.  Forest 
belt  from  Maine  to  Minnesota.  Series  of  great 
lumber  ports,  Minneapolis,  Chicago,  Detroit,  Buffalo, 
Albany,  Bangor,  St.  John,  etc. 

15.  Minneapolis  as  a  trade  centre. 
Advantages  of  position  and  water-power.    A  centre 

for  the  lumber  business.  Mills.  Railroad  to  the 
prairie  regions  westward.  Wheat-fields  of  the  North- 
west. Red  River  Valley.  Flour-mills  of  Minneapolis. 


180  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Shipment  of  flour.  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  com. 
pared  with  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny.  Other  lumber 
and  flour  centres  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  Places  of 
special  interest  about  Minneapolis. 

1 6.  Stock-raising  in  the  corn-producing  states. 
Pasturing  of  cattle.    Winter  feeding.    Shipment  to 

the  packing  centres.  Kansas  City,  Chicago,  Omaha, 
Peoria. 

17.  Trip  down  the  Mississippi  River  from  St.  Paul 
to  the  delta. 

Bluffs  on  the  upper  river.  Lake  Pepin.  Cities.  St. 
Louis  and  the  great  bridge.  Broad  flood  plain  below 
Cairo.  River-windings.  Levees.  Floods,  crevasse, 
damage.  Steamboats,  pilots,  changing  channels. 
Cities  of  Memphis,  Vicksburg,  New  Orleans.  De- 
scription of  the  jetties  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 
Recent  geological  history  of  the  valley.  Commerce 
of  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries.  Ohio  and 
Missouri  rivers  compared  with  one  another  and  with 
the  upper  Mississippi. 

1 8.  The  government  of  the  home  state. 

State  capitol.  Governor's  residence.  State  legis- 
lature. Rooms  for  meeting  of  Senate  and  House. 
Illustrations  of  state  laws.  State  appropriations  for 
schools  and  charitable  institutions.  Duties  of  the 
Governor,  illustrated.  The  state  Supreme  Court  and 
its  duties. 

19.  Pikes  Peak  and  vrcinity. 

Manitou  and  the  mineral  springs  at  the  base.    Trip 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  l8l 

to  the  summit  house  by  trail  or  by  railroad.  Broad 
view  from  the  summit.  Clouds,  rain,  snow,  and  storms 
on  theB  top.  Places  of  interest  in  the  neighborhood, 
as  Cheyenne  Canyon,  Garden  of  the  Gods,  Monument 
Park,  Williams  Canyon,  Cave  of  the  Winds.  Other 
great  peaks  in  Colorado,  as  Grays  Peak,  Longs  Peak, 
Mount  of  the  Holy  Cross,  etc.  Compare  with  Mount 
Washington  and  White  Mountains. 

20.  Irrigation  and  the  big  ditch  at  Denver. 

The  arid  country  east  of  the  foot-hills.  The  Platte 
River  and  location  of  the  big  ditch.  Construction  of 
the  ditch,  tunnels,  flumes,  etc.  Reservoirs  for  receiv- 
ing spring  floods.  Drawing  off  the  water  upon  the 
land.  Water  rights  and  taxes.  State  laws.  Effects 
of  irrigation.  Farms,  gardens.  Other  modes  of  irriga- 
tion. Importance  of  irrigation  to  Colorado  and  the 
West. 

21.  Gold-mining  in  California. 

Discovery  of  gold  in  California.  History.  Placer- 
mining.  Going  down  into  a  gold  mine.  Machinery. 
Stamp-mills  and  smelters.  Gold  production  in  Colo- 
rado and  other  Western  states.  The  uses  of  gold  at 
the  mint  and  in  manufacturing.  Later  comparisons 
with  the  Klondike,  Australia,  and  South  Africa. 

22.  The  central  basin. 

General  survey  and  drainage  of  this  region.  Salt 
Lake.  Rivers  flowing  into  it.  Geologic  history  of 
the  lake.  Salt  deserts  to  the  west.  Other  salt  lakes 
and  sinks  in  the  great  basin.  Causes  of  the  dry 


1 82  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

climate.  Vegetation  of  the  basin.  The  surrounding 
mountains. 

23.  Fruit-growing  in  California  and  Florida. 
Orange  groves.    Pineapples,  peaches,  etc.    Dangers 

from  frosts  and  means  of  protection.  Shipment  to 
Northern  and  Eastern  markets.  Comparison  with 
other  fruit-growing  districts  of  the  United  States. 
The  winter  resorts  in  these  states. 

24.  Columbia  River  and  the  salmon  fisheries. 

The  salmon  going  up  the  river.  Catching  and  can- 
ning the  fish.  Mouth  of  the  Columbia.  Navigation. 
The  falls,  dalles,  and  upper  course  of  the  river. 

25.  The  forests  of   Washington   and   the  Pacific 
slope. 

Lumbering  among  the  big  trees.  Climatic  condi- 
tions favorable  to  forests.  Shipment  of  lumber. 
Comparison  with  lumbering  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

26.  Sugar-production  in  Louisiana. 
Sugar-cane  and  the   cane-fields.     Sugar-mill   and 

boiling  down  the  sap.  Refining  sugar  and  shipment. 
Compare  with  maple-sugar  making.  Later  comparison 
with  Cuba  and  Hawaii  in  regard  to  sugar  product. 

Geography  Topics  Parallel  with  the  History  Lessons 
of  the  Fifth  Grade 

Journeys  across  the  Rocky  Mountains.  (Stories  of 
Fr6mont  and  Lewis  and  Clark.)  The  canyon  of  the 
Colorado  River.  (Story  of  Major  Powell.)  The  pla- 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  183 

teau  of  Colorado.  The  land  of  Mexico.  (Story  ot 
Cortes.)  Florida  and  the  Southern  states.  (De  Soto 
and  La  Salle.)  The  West  Indies.  (Columbus's  differ- 
ent voyages.)  The  trade  routes  to  India.  (Columbus 
and  De  Gama.)  The  map  of  the  world  in  Columbus's 
day.  The  equatorial  current,  trade-winds,  and  Gulf 
Stream.  (Voyages  of  early  navigators.) 

As  pure  geography  lessons  parallel  with  the  history 
these  topics  can  be  treated  briefly  but  in  a  compre- 
hensive way,  so  as  to  establish  a  valuable  connection 
between  history  and  geography. 

Geography  Topics  for  Short  Review  as  suggested  by 
the  Stories  of  European  History 

Spain  in  the  time  of  Columbus.  (Granada  and  the 
Moors.)  The  coast  of  Africa  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 
(Prince  Henry  and  the  Portuguese  navigators.)  The 
journey  to  Palestine.  (Richard  I  and  the  Crusades.) 
Normandy  and  England.  (William  I.)  Sailing  around 
England.  (Spanish  Armada.)  Scenery  of  the  moun- 
tains and  rocky  coasts  of  Scotland.  (Wallace  and 
Bruce.) 

A  review  of  these  historical  topics  from  a  purely 
geographical  standpoint  is  worthy  of  special  emphasis. 

SIXTH  GRADE 

The  sixth  grade  completes  the  geography  of  the 
United  States  and  North  America.  The  more  com- 
plex and  difficult  topics  of  the  United  States  are 
given  a  full  treatment.  The  large  physiographic 


1 84  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

aspects  of  North  America,  our  neighbors  in  Canada 
and  Mexico,  our  colonial  possessions,  and  the  still 
broader  topics  of  mathematical  geography  for  the 
world  are  included  in  this  year's  work. 

1.  Boston.  (Historical  associations,  commerce.) 
Monuments.     History.     Famous  streets  and  build- 
ings.   Harbor  and  shipping.    Import  of  raw  products. 
Manufactures,   shoes,   books,   clothing,     etc.     Coast 
trade  and  ship  lines  to   Europe.     Railroads   to   the 
West  and  North.     Harvard  University.     Comparison 
with   Baltimore,    in    commerce,    population.      Johns 
Hopkins  University.     Coast  trade.     Railroads. 

2.  New  York  City. 

Commerce  with  the  West  via  Hudson  River, 
New  York  Central,  Erie  Canal,  and  Great  Lakes. 
Other  Western  roads  terminating  in  New  York. 
The  harbor  and  shipping-docks  of  New  York. 
The  coastwise  trade.  Steamship  lines  to  Europe 
and  South  America.  Exports  and  imports  com- 
pared with  other  cities  of  the  United  States,  rea- 
sons for  vast  amount.  Immigration,  Castle  Garden, 
emigrant  ships.  Various  languages  spoken  in 
New  York.  Jewish  quarter.  Great  bridges,  fer- 
ries, parks,  libraries,  beaches.  Greater  New  York 
and  the  suburban  cities.  Columbia  University  and 
other  schools.  The  subway  and  elevated  railways. 
Comparison  in  detail  with  Philadelphia.  Later 
comparison  with  New  Orleans,  Chicago,  and  San 
Francisco. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  185 

3.  Great    Traffic    Routes   across    the   Alleghany 
Mountains. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  the  Pennsylvania 
lines,  the  New  York  Central,  tunnels,  through  the 
mountains,  scenery.  Use  of  the  river  valleys  and 
water-gaps.  The  Great  Valley  of  Virginia,  history. 
Early  difficulties  in  crossing  the  mountains.  Later 
comparison  with  Rocky  Mountain  roads. 

4.  Development  of  the  Southern  states. 

The  pine  forests  of  the  South,  turpentining  and 
lumbering.  Iron  production  and  coal  mines.  Bir- 
mingham. Truck-farming  along  the  Atlantic  states 
from  North  Carolina  to  Florida.  Cotton-mills  and 
factories.  Fruit  culture  in  the  Gulf  states.  Oil- 
fields, cotton  production,  and  cattle-ranches  of  Texas. 
Galveston  and  its  trade.  The  negro  population  and 
labor.  The  schools  at  Hampton  and  Muskegee. 
The  public  schools  and  universities  of  the  South. 
Immigration  into  the  Southern  states. 

5.  The  manufacture  of  steel  and  wrought-iron. 
Their  uses  in  machine-shops,  in  the  manufacture  of 

guns  and  firearms,  cutlery,  nails  and  wire,  tools  and 
implements,  in  bridges,  ship-building,  and  house 
construction.  The  importance  of  iron  industries  and 
their  close  relation  to  all  other  industries  in  our 
modern  age  should  be  understood. 

6.  Cotton  manufacture  in  New  England. 

Mills  at  Lowell  and  Fall  River  and  other  cities. 
Use  of  water-power  and  steam.  The  spinning-jenny 


1 86  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

and  the  power-loom.  Mill  operatives,  and  their  homes 
and  mode  of  life.  Cotton-mills  in  the  South  and  in 
other  states.  Woollen-mills  and  woollen  manufacture. 
Study  a  map  which  marks  the  distribution  of  textile 
industries  in  the  United  States. 

7.  A  great  newspaper  plant. 

Gathering  the  news.  Reporters.  Press  reports. 
Paper  used.  Typesetters  and  printing-presses.  Ex- 
tent of  circulation.  Various  kinds  of  news  from 
home  and  abroad.  Printing  and  manufacture  of 
books.  Large  libraries  in  cities  and  schools.  Chief 
centres  of  publication,  Boston,  New  York,  Chicago, 
etc. 

8.  Boot  and  shoe  manufacture. 

Hides,  tanneries,  and  leather  manufacture.  Sources 
from  which  hides  and  leather  are  obtained.  A  shoe- 
factory,  machines  and  division  of  labor.  Boston  as 
a  centre  for  the  shoe  trade.  Other  cities. 

9.  Ship-building. 

Wooden  and  iron  ships.  Iron  ship-building  in 
Philadelphia.  The  government  navy-yards.  Dry- 
docks,  launching  a  ship.  The  American  Navy,  ves- 
sels of  war.  Lines  of  merchant  steamers  to  Europe. 

10.  Washington  as  the  seat  of  government. 
General  plan  of  the  city.  History  of  founding.    The 

Capitol  building,  halls  of  Senate  and  House.  Con- 
gress and  its  law-making  powers.  The  Supreme 
Court  and  its  duties  and  powers.  Comparison  of  state 
and  national  government.  Monuments  and  parks  and 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  187 

other  public  buildings  in  Washington,  as  the  Congres- 
sional Library,  Smithsonian  Institute,  White  House, 
Treasury  Building,  and  Department  of  State.  Rela- 
tion between  the  three  departments  of  government. 

11.  Chicago  as  a  trade  centre. 

Advantage  of  location.  Relation  to  the  West.  Orig- 
inal site.  Swamps  and  Chicago  River.  Products  cen- 
tring here,  grain,  livestock,  lumber,  coal,  iron,  copper 
etc. ;  packing-houses.  Railroads  centring  in  Chicago. 
Shipping  by  the  lake  and  by  canal.  Water- works, 
drainage  canal.  Park  system.  History  of  Chicago, 
great  fire,  exposition.  Compare  later  with  other 
cities  in  size,  etc. 

1 2.  Central  Pacific  Railroad  Route  from  New  York 
to  San  Francisco. 

Difficulties  of  construction.  Mountain-engineering. 
Tunnels  and  snow  sheds.  Old  wagon  roads  and  trails 
to  California.  Products  shipped  between  the  East 
and  the  West.  Fruits,  metals,  manufactures,  tea,  sugar, 
etc.  Comparisons  with  Southern  Pacific  and  Northern 
Pacific.  Compare  with  Pennsylvania  system  in  the 
East.  The  railroads  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 

13.  The  Mississippi  Valley  as  a  whole. 

Area  and  population.  Variety  of  climate  and  prod- 
ucts. Great  producing  districts  as  corn  belt,  wheat, 
cotton,  iron,  coal,  cattle-raising,  forests.  Contrast  of 
the  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers.  Commerce  of  river 
compared  with  that  of  railroads.  Commerce  of  Mis- 
sissippi River  compared  with  that  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


1 88  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

14.  New  Orleans. 

Centre  for  the  cotton  trade.  Commerce  by  rivet 
boats  and  ocean  steamers.  The  levees,  wharves,  and 
river  front.  Products  shipped,  sugar,  fruits,  cotton, 
lumber,  grain.  Population,  French,  English,  negroes. 
History.  Railroad  centre  for  the  South.  Comparison 
with  Galveston  and  Gulf  ports.  Trade  with  Central 
and  South  America  and  with  Europe.  Value  of  the 
jetties  at  the  delta. 

15.  The  Rocky  Mountains  as  a  whole,  including 
all  the  Western  highlands  of  North  America. 

Chief  ranges  and  plateaus.  Parks.  Effects  of  the 
mountains  on  climate,  rains,  and  production.  Mineral 
and  agricultural  resources.  Grazing  and  forests. 
Drainage,  rivers,  gorges  and  canyons,  lakes.  Volcanic 
regions,  glaciers,  deserts.  Plateau  of  Mexico  and 
volcanoes. 

1 6.  Trip  from  Puget  Sound  to  Alaska. 

Islands  and  coast  scenery.  Climate  of  the  coast. 
The  Japan  Current.  The  people  and  industries  of 
Alaska.  The  seal  fisheries.  Climate  of  Alaska  and 
the  North. 

17.  San  Francisco. 

Harbor  and  advantages  for  trade.  Commerce  of  the 
Pacific  coast  and  with  Asia.  Steamship  lines  to 
China  and  Japan.  Exports  and  imports  at  San 
Francisco.  Chinese  immigration.  Chinese  quarter. 
Commerce  with  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines.  San 
Francisco  compared  with  cities  of  Puget  Sound  and 


COURSE  OF  STUDY   FULLY  OUTLINED  189 

other  Pacific  ports.  San  Francisco  compared  with 
New  York,  Boston,  Baltimore. 

1 8.  The  Isthmian  Canal. 

The  French  attempt  to  build  the  canal.  The  Nic- 
aragua Route,  length  and  difficulties.  Present  plans 
of  our  government  at  Panama.  Advantages  of  an 
Isthmian  canal.  Shortening  of  great  trade  routes  by 
water.  Comparison  with  Suez  Canal. 

19.  North  America  as  a  whole. 

Its  great  central  plains  and  mountain  systems.  Its 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coastal  plains.  Contrast  of  the 
Gulf  coast  with  the  Arctic  coast.  The  chief  zones  of 
climate,  variations  in  heat  and  moisture  due  to  physi- 
cal causes.  Isothermal  lines.  Peninsulas,  bays,  and 
harbors  of  North  America.  Comparison  of  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts. 

20.  Distribution  of  races  in  North  America. 
European  races  in  North  America.     The  Indians 

in  Canada,  United  States,  and  Mexico.  The  negroes, 
their  numbers  and  location.  The  Chinese  and  Japa- 
nese. European  races  in  the  United  States.  Density 
of  population  in  different  parts  of  North  America. 
Comparison  and  contrasts  of  these  races. 

21.  The  glacial  period  in  North  America. 
Description    of  the  great   ice   sheet.     Extent  and 

limits  of  the  ice  sheet.  Its  deposits  and  effects  on 
soil,  lakes,  rivers,  etc.  Proofs  of  the  ice  age  upon  the 
rocks.  Present  'glaciers  in  Greenland  and  Rocky 
Mountains. 


S 


190  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

22.  Mathematical  geography. 

Motions  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  and  around  the  sun. 
The  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  its 
orbit.  Causes  of  the  changing  seasons  and  the  chang- 
ing length  of  the  day  and  night.  Long  days  in  sum- 
mer and  long  nights  in  winter  above  the  Arctic 
Circle.  The  equinoxes.  Latitude  and  longitude ;  par- 
allels and  meridians  and  their  meaning  interpreted 
upon  maps ;  equator  and  prime  meridian.  Compari- 
son of  parallels  of  latitude  with  isothermal  lines.  The 
zones.  The  moon  and  its  changes,  effects  upon  the 
tides,  importance  of  tides  in  harbors  and  navigation. 
Stars  and  constellations  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
apparent  motion. 

23.  Colonial  topics. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands,  products,  climate,  people, 
and  government.  The  Philippines.  History.  Surface 
and  climatic  conditions.  Products  and  commercial 
importance.  The  people,  native  Philippinoes,  Span- 
iards. The  government  of  the  Philippines,  education. 
The  United  States  and  trade  with  the  Philippines. 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba.  History. 

24.  Our  neighbors  in  North  America. 

The  government  of  Canada.  Ottawa  the  capital 
city,  parliament,  states.  Comparison  with  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  Trade  relations  with  the 
United  States.  The  St.  Lawrence  River,  commerce, 
rapids,  cities.  Contrast  with  the  Lower  Mississippi 
and  Colorado  rivers. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  191 

25.  Mexico.     Its  people  and  government. 

The  Mexican  population,  Indian  races.  History, 
conquest  by  Spaniards,  independence.  Backward 
condition  of  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  educa- 
tion. Ignorance  and  half-enslaved  condition  of  the 
poorer  classes.  Comparison  with  people  of  United 
States.  The  states  of  Central  America. 

26.  Topics  suggested  by  American  history. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and  the  French  wars. 
The  Ohio  Valley  and  its  approaches  from  the  east. 
Geographical  location  and  distribution  of  Indian 
tribes  in  our  early  history.  The  influence  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  upon  early  settlement.  The 
geographical  distribution  of  different  nationalities 
coming  to  this  country  in  colonial  times. 

27.  Geography    topics    suggested    by     European 
history. 

Location  of  European  countries  which  colonized 
America.  Compare  the  latitude  of  their  old  home 
with  their  situation  in  America.  The  old  home  of 
the  negro  race  in  Africa.  The  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  its  surrounding  nations.  (Suggested  by  the 
Persian  and  Punic  wars.)  New  England  and  Canada. 
(Suggested  by  the  colonial  and  border  wars.) 

SEVENTH  GRADE.  —  THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

i.  The  Central  Alps.  Source  of  rivers.  The  Great 
Plains  of  Europe.  Effects  of  the  glacial  period  in 
Europe  and  comparison  with  America.  Influence  of 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  Gulf  Stream  and  of  the  ocean  upon  the  climate 
of  Western  Europe.  The  lesser  mountains  and 
peninsulas  of  Europe  and  the  division  into  separate 
nations.  The  surrounding  waters  and  irregular  coast- 
line of  Europe.  Effects  in  history.  2.  Physical  char- 
acter and  surroundings  of  the  British  Isles.  Effects 
of  isolation.  3.  Voyage  by  steamer  from  New 
York  to  London.  South  coast  of  England,  the 
Thames,  Liverpool,  and  the  trade  with  America. 

4.  The  coal  fields  of  England  and  Scotland.      Im- 
portance  of    coal.      Compare    with    United   States. 

5.  Iron  manufactures.     (Birmingham  and  Sheffield.) 
Compare    with     Pittsburg,     Birmingham,     Chicago. 

6.  The  textile  industries.     (Manchester.)    Compare 
with  New  England  cotton  and  woollen  mills.     The 
Manchester    ship    canal.      7.    London.     Parliament 
houses,  government,  King  and  aristocracy.    Compare 
with    Washington.       British   Museum.       Westmin- 
ster   Abbey.     St.     Paul's.      The   docks    and    ship- 
ping.    (Greater  New  York.)    The  Tower.    History. 
8.   Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities.    Great  public 
schools,  school  life.      9.   The  surface  of    Scotland, 
lakes,    coast,    mountains.       10.    Glasgow    and  ship- 
building,    ii.    Edinburgh  and  the  Castle.    History. 
12.    Ireland's    agriculture   and   manufactures.     The 
Irish  people,  the  Irish  in  America.     13.    Important 
fisheries  about  the  British  Isles.     Compare  with  the 
Banks   of   Newfoundland  and   New  England  coast, 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  Florida  coast 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  193 

France 

14.  Paris  the  city  of  modern  art,  palaces,  archi- 
tecture, churches,  art  galleries,  theatres.  15.  The 
manufacture  of  silk,  and  Lyons.  16.  Grape  culture 
and  French  wines.  Bordeaux.  17.  Marseilles,  the 
chief  port,  trade  with  Mediterranean  ports.  18.  The 
French  people,  gayety,  fashion,  fine  china,  and  artis- 
tic manufactures.  The  French  Republic.  Recent 

history. 

Germany 

19.  The  Rhine  River,  fortified  cities.  Steamboat 
trip  up  the  Rhine,  commerce  and  cities  of  the  Rhine. 
History.  Compare  with  the  Hudson.  20.  Iron 
manufactures  on  the  lower  Rhine.  21.  Sugar-beet 
industry.  History.  22.  Berlin  the  Kaiser  City,  the 
Kaiser,  the  army,  royal  residence,  museums.  Railroad 
centre.  Compare  with  Chicago.  23.  Character  of 
the  German  people,  music,  outdoor  life,  physical  train- 
ing. Common  schools  and  higher  education.  Beer- 
gardens  and  amusements.  Home  life.  24.  Internal 
commerce  by  rivers  and  canals.  25.  Hamburg  the 
chief  seaport,  the  harbor.  Other  cities  of  the  Baltic. 

Holland  and  the  Lowlands 

26.  History.     Character  of  the  Dutch  people. 

The  Austrian  Empire 

27.  Mixed    nationality.     Hungary.      Vienna    the 
capital  city. 


194  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

28.  Lakes,  mountains,  and  rivers  of  Switzerland 
Swiss  manufacturing  and  grazing.     Dairy  products. 
Government  of  Switzerland.    History.    Compare  with 
our  union  of  states. 

Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia 

29.  Surface  and  products.    Emigration  to  America. 

30.  The  government  of  Russia.    Contrast  with  the 
United  States  and    England.      St.    Petersburg   and 
the   commerce  of  the  Baltic.      (Peter    the   Great.) 

31.  The    ancient  city  of    Moscow.      The    kremlin. 

32.  The  Volga  and  the  great  plain  of  Russia.    Com- 
pare with  Mississippi  Valley.     Odessa. 

The  Peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe 

33.  Madrid  and  the  Spanish  people.  34.  Gra- 
nada and  the  Alhambra.  (Irving.)  35.  Italy  and 
the  Italian  people.  Fine  art  and  beggars.  Naples 
and  Mount  Vesuvius.  (Pompeii.)  36.  Rome,  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Vatican,  the  Head  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  Colosseum  and  the  ruins  of  Rome. 
(Historical  associations.)  37.  Athens  and  the  Acrop- 
olis. The  modern  city.  (Independence  from  the 
Turks.)  38.  Constantinople.  Bad  government  of 
the  Turk.  Decline  of  Turkey. 

39.  Great  traffic  routes  of  Europe  by  railroad, 
by  internal  waterways,  and  by  sea  travel. 

Location  of  chief  cities  with  reasons  for  the  same. 
Contrast  with  American  cities. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  195 

40.  Number  of  important  nationalities  in  Europe. 
Contrast  with  North  America. 

41.  Comparison  of  Europe  with  North  America  as 
to  mountains,  rivers,  cities,  climate. 

Topics  suggested  by  American  History 

Geographical  centres  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
in  America.  (Hudson  River  and  Lake  Champlain, 
Boston  and  vicinity,  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.)  Important  naval  battles 
on  the  ocean.  Franklin  and  Paul  Jones  in  Paris. 
France,  England,  Holland,  and  Germany  during  the 
Revolution. 

European  History  and  Geography 

Geographical  division  of  Europe  into  Protestants 
and  Catholics.  The  empire  of  Charles  V  in  Spain, 
Holland,  Austria,  and  the  Colonies. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

Study  of  the  Rest  of  the  World,  starting  from  Europe 
as  a  Centre  of  Influence. 

The  British  Empire. 

Colonial  possessions  and  their  distribution.  I.  In- 
dia, physical  features,  climate,  and  people.  England's 
government  of  India.  History.  2.  Routes  to  India 
from  England,  by  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  Suez  Canal, 
by  overland  railway.  3.  Australia  and  its  rapid  de- 
velopment. Gold  mines.  Sheep  farms.  Cities.  Trade 
with  England.  Union  of  states.  Compare  with  Canada 


196  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

and  the  United  States.  4.  The  English  in  Africa. 
Cape  Colony.  The  Boer  War.  Egypt.  Livingstone 
and  Stanley.  Possessions  of  other  European  states 
in  Africa.  Rivalry  of  France  and  England  in 
Africa.  5.  The  Congo  Free  State.  Congo  River. 
(Stanley.)  6.  New  Zealand  and  the  English  posses- 
sions in  the  Pacific.  7.  Other  lesser  colonies  of 
England.  8.  General  relations  of  England  to  all 
her  colonies.  Commerce  of  England.  Naval  power 
of  England,  war-ships  and  naval  stations. 

9.  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East  Indies. 
Java  and  the  successful  Dutch  rule. 

10.  Russia  in  Asia. 

Russian  exiles.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  Ri- 
valry of  Russia  and  England  in  Asia.  The  Black  and 
Caspian  seas.  Commerce.  Cities,  n.  The  great 
physical  features  of  Asia,  mountains,  plains,  and 
climatic  conditions.  12.  Vast  deserts  of  Central 
Asia.  Compare  with  deserts  of  Northern  Africa. 

13.  The  Chinese  Empire.  Its  weakness.  The 
Boxer  troubles  and  European  interference.  14.  The 
Yangtse  River,  primitive  boating  on  this  river.  Com- 
pare with  Mississippi  River.  15.  Chinese  cities, 
Pekin,  Canton,  etc.  Commerce  with  United  States 
and  with  Europe.  1 6.  Tea  culture  in  China.  17.  Char- 
acter of  the  Chinese  people,  slow  and  conservative, 
opposition  to  modern  ideas  and  improvements,  an- 
cestor worship.  Skill  in  hand-work.  Manufactures. 
Education  and  power  of  old  customs. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FULLY  OUTLINED  197 

1 8.  The  Island  Empire  of  Japan. 

Comparison  with  the  British  Isles.  Progressive 
character  of  the  Japanese.  Their  artistic  manufac- 
tures. Education.  Army.  Navy.  Recent  history. 

19.  Smaller  states  of  Asia.     The  Open  Door  of 
Asia.     20.    The  physiography  of  Asia  compared  with 
that   of   Europe   and   North   America.       21.    Large 
islands  of  the  East  Indies  and  the  West  Indies  and 
Madagascar   compared.       22.    Distribution   of   races 
in  Asia.     Compare  with  Europe  in  population  and 
government. 

23.    South  America. 

The  Andes  Mountains.  Compare  with  North 
America.  24.  The  Amazon  River.  Compare  with 
Congo  and  Mississippi.  25.  Brazil  and  its  people. 
Coffee  production.  Rio  Janeiro  and  other  cities. 
26.  Important  states  of  South  America.  27.  The 
Pacific  Ocean,  size  and  character  as  compared  with 
the  Atlantic  and  Indian. 

28.  Comparative  physiography  of  the  continents. 

29.  Location  and  distribution  of  races  upon  the 
earth.     30.   The  controlling  influence  of  Europe  and 
North  America. 

Topics  suggested  by  American  History 

31.  The  expansion  of  the  United  States.  Results 
of  the  Spanish  War.  32.  The  Negro  in  Africa  and 
in  America.  33.  Distribution  of  English-speaking 
people  throughout  the  world. 


198  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

34.    European  history. 

Napoleon's  conquests  in  Europe.  35.  The  union 
of  German  states.  36.  The  union  of  Italian  states. 
37.  England's  conquests  in  the  last  century. 


CHAPTER  XII 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  CAREFULLY  ARRANGED  ACCORDING 
TO  GRADES 

THE  following  list  of  books  has  been  selected  for 
the  aid  of  teachers  in  carrying  out  the  above  course 
of  study. 

In  each  grade  the  books  are  divided  into  three 
groups  (except  in  third  grade). 

1.  The  text-books  which  constitute  the   basis  of 
the  school  work  and  are  of  use  to  both  teacher  and 
pupils.     The  standard  text-books  can  be  used  in  this 
place. 

2.  The  reference  books  which  are  suitable  for  the 
children,  such  as  geographical  readers,  books  of  travel, 
closely  related  books  in  history  and  science.     These 
books  are  useful  in  the  school  library,  and  should  be 
such  as  the  children  can  consult  independently  and 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.     They  cover  a 
wider  range  of  topics  and  give  much  detailed  informa- 
tion not   possible   of   incorporation    into  text-books. 
They  are  often  well  illustrated,  and  are  written  mostly 
in  a  simple  and  interesting  style.     They  supplement 
effectively  the  work  of  the  text-books,  and  give,  also, 

199 


20O  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

an  outlet  for  the  activity  of  the  abler  pupils  in  their 
leisure  time. 

3.  Additional  reference  books  for  teachers.  The 
larger  books,  dealing  more  exhaustively  with  impor- 
tant phases  of  geography,  geology,  and  history  should 
be,  as  far  as  possible,  within  the  teacher's  reach. 
Such  books  are  beyond  the  capacity  of  children,  but 
they  greatly  enlarge  and  stimulate  the  teacher  and 
also  furnish  an  abundant  store  of  ideas  and  illus- 
trative facts  with  which  to  enrich  the  work  of  the 
recitation. 

Pedagogical  books  dealing  with  geography  and 
related  subjects  are  included,  and  some  of  the  larger 
scientific  books  and  great  works  on  geography  and 
science  are  incorporated  into  this  list.  The  school 
library,  as  far  as  possible,  should  be  supplied  with  a 
full  series  of  all  these  works. 

THIRD  GRADE 

i.   Texts  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  teacher. 

The  Home  Geography,  First  Book.  (Tarr  and  Mc- 
Murry).  The  Macmillan  Co.  The  topics  on  home 
geography  and  elementary  physiography  are  well 
worked  out. 

Other  standard  school  geographies. 

Lessons  in  Home  Geography  (McMurry).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  A  series  of  illustrative  lessons 
and  excursions  into  the  home  district  fully  de- 
scribed. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  2OI 

Lalami,  the  Little  Cliff-dweller  (Bayliss).  The 
Public  School  Publishing  Co. 

The  Seven  Little  Sisters  (Andrews).     Ginn  &  Co. 

Each  and  All  (Andrews).  Ginn  &  Co.  These 
two  books  have  been  much  used  in  about  third  grade 
as  an  introduction  to  distant  lands  and  peoples. 
Simple  descriptions  of  child  life  and  surroundings. 

The  Wide  World.     Ginn  &  Co.     121  pp. 

Geographical  Nature  Studies  (Payne).  American 
Book  Co.  144  pp.  Very  simple. 

Around  the  World,  First  Book  (Carroll)  The  Morse 
Co.  Suitable  for  children's  reading. 

Home  Geography  (Long).  American  Book  Co. 
142  pp.  Very  simple,  with  illustrations. 

Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe.  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands 
(Shaw).  American  Book  Co. 

Story  of  Wretched  Flea  (Muller).  A.  Flanagan  & 
Co.  The  story  of  a  little  Chinese  boy. 

Children  of  the  Palm  Lands  (Allen).  Educational 
Publishing  Co. 

Snow  Baby  (Peary).  F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co.  A  true 
story  of  Arctic  life  illustrated  with  photographs. 

Little  People  of  Asia  (Alice  Thome  Miller)  E. 
P.  Button  &  Co. 

2.   Additional  references  for  the  teacher. 

Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography  (McMurry)  The 
Macmillan  Co.  This  is  designed  to  go  with  the  Tarr 


202  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

and  McMurry  geographies.  Illustrative  lessons  are 
also  given.  Lessons  in  Chalk  Modelling  (Heffron). 
Educational  Publishing  Co. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Hume  and  Bailey). 
The  Macmillan  Co.  250  pp. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing  (King).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  479  pp. 

The  School  Garden  (Hemenway).  Doubleday,  Page 
&Co. 

Outlines  of  Field  Geology  (Geike).  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

The  Story  of  the  Earth  (Seeley).  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.  1 86  pp. 

Brooks  and  Brook  Basins  (Frye).    Ginn  &  Co. 

The  Story  of  Ab,  A  Tale  of  the  Time  of  the  Cave 
Men.  Doubleday  &  McClure  Co. 

Man  and  his  Work  (Hubertson).  Adam  and 
Charles  Black.  Geography  and  industries. 

Town  Geology  (Kingsley).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
An  interesting  popular  treatment  of  geological 
topics. 

Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture  (Mason). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.  Descriptive  of  early  industries. 

The  Beginnings  of  Art  (Grosse).  D.  Appleton  & 
Co. 

Anthropology  (Tylor).  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  Chap- 
ters on  primitive  dwellings  and  arts. 

History  of  Education  (Davidson).  Scribners. 
Especially  the  chapter  on  primitive  man . 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  2O3 

FOURTH  GRADE 

1.  Text-books   for  direct  use,   as   a   guide  to  the 
teacher,  furnishing  a  course  of  study  and  materials. 

Home  Geography  (continued),  First  Book.  (Tarr 
&  McMurry).  The  Macmillan  Co.  This  book  con- 
tains a  somewhat  full  treatment  of  important  topics, 
and  can  be  used  in  part  by  the  children  for  seat 
study  and  map  work. 

Other  standard  school  geographies. 

Lessons  in  Home  Geography  (McMurry).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  In  this,  numerous  excursions  are 
described  as  taken  with  classes  of  children.  Illus- 
trative lessons  of  home  geography  are  also  drawn  from 
different  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  above  books  is  given  also  a  treatment  of  the 
world-whole  for  third  and  fourth  grades. 

2.  Supplementary  books  for  children's  reading  and 
reference.     Books  for  children's  reading  in  this  grade 
must  be  very  simple  in  language. 

Around  the  World,  Second  Book  (Carroll).  The 
Morse  Co.  Very  good. 

Selections  from  the  Youth's  Companion,  Numbers 
10,  n,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17.  These  are  in  cheap 
pamphlet  form,  well  written  and  illustrated.  Perry 
Mason  &  Co. 

The  Wide  World.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Home  Geography  (Long).     American  Book  Co. 

Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands 
(Shaw).  American  Book  Co. 


204  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands  (Chaplin).  Lothrop 
Publishing  Co. 

Little  People  of  the  Snow.     A.  Flanagan  &  Co. 

3.    Additional  references  for  teachers. 

Boys  of  Other  Countries  (Bayard  Taylor).  G.  P. 
Putnam  &  Sons. 

Lessons  in  the  New  Geography  (Trotter).  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.  168  pp. 

First  Book  in  Geology  (Shaler).  D.  C.  Heath.  252pp. 

Popular  Geology  (Hogan).    A.  Lovell  &  Co.    93  pp. 

The  Geological  Story  (Dana).  American  Book  Co. 
292  pp. 

Toward  the  Rising  Sun.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Science  Primers,  Physical  Geography.  American 
Book  Co.  1 10  pp. 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography  (McCormick). 
The  Public  School  Publishing  Co.  A  helpful  book. 

How  to  study  and  teach  Geography  (Parker). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

FIFTH  GRADE 

i.   Text-books  for  the  use  of  teachers  and  pupils. 

North  America,  Second  Book  (Tarr  &  McMurry), 
The  Macmillan  Co.  This  contains  a  full  treatment 
of  leading  topics  of  North  America  and  especially  of 
the  United  States. 

Type  Studies  of  North  America,  Part  I  (McMurry). 
The  Macmillan  Co.  This  contains  a  full  presentation 
of  the  chief  types  of  the  United  States  as  supplemen- 
tary to  the  text-book. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS 

Other  standard  geographies. 

Teacher's  Manual  (McMurry).  A  guide  to  teachers 
in  the  use  of  the  Tarr  &  McMurry  Geographies.  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

The  State  Geographies.  New  England,  New  York, 
Ohio,  and  other  States.  Much  fuller  treatment  of 
special  topics.  The  Macmillan  Co. 

2.  Supplementary  and  reference  books  for  children. 

Around  the  World,  Third  Book  (Carroll).  The 
Morse  Co.  Excellent  reading  for  this  grade. 

Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,  Books  Second, 
Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth.  Lee  &  Shepard. 

The  Information  Readers,  4  vols.  Boston  School 
Supply  Co.  Descriptive  of  industries,  etc. 

Our  Own  Country.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Stories  of  Industry,  2  vols.  Educational  Publish- 
ing Co.  These  treat  mining,  textile  industries,  man- 
ufacture of  iron,  etc. 

Selections  from  the  Youth's  Companion,  Numbers 
10  to  17.  Perry  Mason  &  Co. 

Railway  guides  and  illustrated  pamphlets  as  fol- 
lows :  Wonderland,  1900,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 
Wonderland,  1901,  Northern  Pacific  Railway.  Colo- 
rado via  the  Burlington  Route.  Grand  Canyon  of 
Arizona,  Santa  Fe"  Railroad.  California  for  Health, 
Pleasure,  and  Profit,  Southern  Pacific.  Around  the 
Circle,  The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande.  What  to  see 
in  Colorado  ?  Colorado  Midland.  Los  Angeles 
City  and  County,  Souvenir  and  Views,  The  Union 


206  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Pacific.    Through  Story  Land  to  Sunset  Seas,  South- 
ern Pacific. 

Our  Country,  East.     Perry  Mason  &  Co. 

Our  Country,  West.     Perry  Mason  &  Co. 

World  and  its  People  (Smith).    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

3.    Further  references  for  teachers. 

The  Teaching  of   Geography  (Geike).     The  Mac- 
millan  Co.     An  excellent  practical  treatise. 

Historic  Waterways  (Thwaites).     A.  C.  McClurg. 

Journeys  in  boats  on  the  Wisconsin,  Fox,  and  Rock 
rivers. 

General  Guide  to  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
2  vols.     Appleton  &  Co.     Good  reference  materials. 

Historic  Towns   of    the   Middle    states  (Powell). 
G.  P.  Putnam  &  Sons.     426  pp.     Illustrated. 

The  Earth  and  its  Story  (Heilprin).     Silver,  Bur- 
dett &  Co. 

Ballou.     Footprints  of  Travel.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Picturesque    Geographical    Readers,   Second   and 
Third  Books.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Dixie,  or  Southern  Scenes  and  Sketches  (Ralph). 
Harpers.     Well  illustrated. 

Our  Italy  (Warner).     Harpers.     The   Southwest. 
Well  illustrated. 

Life  on  the  Mississippi  (Mark  Twain).     Harpers. 

The   Story   of  our   Continent   (Shaler).     Ginn  & 
Co.     One  of  the  best  books  for  the  teacher's  use. 

Elementary  Meteorology  (Waldo).    American  Book 
Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  2OJ 

Explorers  and  Travellers  (Greely).  Scribners. 
373  PP-  Illustrated. 

Notable  Voyages  (Kingston).  Routledge.  621  pp. 
Illustrated. 

King's  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography.  Lee  & 
Shepard. 

SIXTH  GRADE 

1.  Text-books  for  teachers  and  pupils. 

North  America,  Second  Book  (Tarr  &  McMurry). 
Full  study  of  physiography,  products,  manufactures, 
cities,  etc.,  of  the  United  States  and  North  America. 
This  is  a  continuation  of  fifth-grade  work. 

Type  Studies  of  the  United  States  and  North 
America  (McMurry).  Part  II.  (In  preparation.)  The 
Macmillan  Co.  These  are  full  accounts  of  the  larger, 
more  complex  topics  of  North  America. 

Other  standard  geographies. 

The  State  Geographies,  by  different  authors.  The 
Macmillan  Co.  New  England,  New  York,  Ohio  and 
other  States.  Very  interesting  reference  material 
and  well  illustrated. 

2.  Supplementary    reading    and     references    for 
children. 

North  America  (Carpenter).  American  Book  Co. 
Valuable  and  interesting  descriptions. 

King's  Geographical  Readers,  6  vols.  Lee  & 
Shepard.  Well  illustrated  and  suited  for  school  use. 

Our  American  Neighbors.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 
Descriptions  of  Canada  and  Mexico. 


208  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Great  American  Industries,  2  vols.  A.  Flanagan 
&  Co.  Illustrated  descriptions  of  chief  industries. 

Whaling  and  Fishing  (Nordhoff).  Dodd,  Mead  & 
Co.  A  realistic  description  of  ocean  and  sailor  life. 

Alice's  Visit  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  (Krout). 
American  Book  Co.  208  pp.  Simple  descriptions 
and  pictures  based  on  observation. 

Selections  from  the  Youth's  Companion,  Numbers 
3,  10,  u,  and  12.  Perry  Mason  &  Co. 

Boy  Travellers  (Knox).  The  volume  on  Mexico. 
Harpers. 

Stories  of  Industry,  2  vols.  Educational  Publish- 
ing Co. 

A  Trip  across  the  Continent  (Lummis).  Scribners. 

A  Reader  of  Physical  Geography  (Dodge). 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Historic  Boston  (Hale).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

General  Guide  to  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
2  vols.  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Arctic  Alaska  and  Siberia  or  Eight  Months  with  the 
Arctic  Whalemen  (Aldrich).  Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Greater  America.  Perry  Mason  &  Co.  A  study 
of  our  recent  possessions. 

Hawaii  and  its  People  (Twombly).  Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co. 

Winter  in  Central  America  and  Mexico  (Sanborn). 
Lee  &  Shepard. 

Captains  of  Industry  (Parton).  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  2O9 

3.   Additional  references  for  teachers. 

The  Story  of  our  Continent  (Shaler).     Ginn  &  Co. 

Aspects  of  the  Earth  (Shaler).  Scribners.  A 
large  book,  superior  illustrations. 

Lakes  of  North  America  (Russell).     Ginn  &  Co. 

Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography  (Chisholm). 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  490  pp.  Good  reference. 

South  and  West  (Warner).     Harpers. 

Commercial  Geography  (Tilden).  Sibley  &  Ducker. 
A  brief  treatment  of  commercial  topics,  with  good 
maps. 

Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States  (Tarr). 
The  Macmillan  Co.  Very  instructive. 

Introduction  to  Physical  Geography  (Gilbert  and 
Brigham).  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Geographic  Influences  in  American  History  (Brig- 
ham).  Ginn  &  Co.  Very  instructive. 

Nature  and  Man  in  America  (Shaler).  Scribners. 
285  pp.  Very  instructive  and  helpful  to  a  teacher. 

Railway  guides,  similar  to  those  noted  in  fifth 
grades. 

Our  Great  West  (Ralph).     Harpers. 

Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States  (Patten) 
of  the  Science  Primer  Series.  There  is  also  a  large 
volume  on  the  same  subject  by  Patten.  American 
Book  Co. 

The  Soil  (King).     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography  (Redway). 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  Valuable. 


2IO  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

King's  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography.  Lee  & 
Shepard. 

National  Geographic  Monographs  (ten  large 
pamphlets  on  physiographic  topics).  Those  on  Niag- 
ara Falls  and  Mt.  Shasta  are  especially  good.  The 
American  Book  Co. 

Commercial  Geography  (Adams).  D.  Appleton 
&  Co.  477  pp.  Very  valuable  for  reference. 

Practical  Agriculture  (James).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

The  United  States.  Facts  and  figures  illustrating 
the  physical  geography  of  the  country  and  its  mate- 
rial resources  (Whitney).  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

Highways  of  Commerce  (Special  Consular  Reports), 
Vol.  XII.  Ocean  lines,  railways,  canals,  and  other 
trade  routes  of  foreign  countries.  A  government 
report  of  great  value,  with  full  descriptions. 

Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States  (C.  D. 
Wright).  Scribners. 

The  Oregon  Trail  (Parkman).  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
An  account  of  Parkman's  experiences  among  Indians 
and  hunters  on  the  Western  plains. 

The  First  Crossing  of  Greenland  (Nansen). 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Glimpses  of  Three  Coasts  (Jackson).  418  pp. 
Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park  (Chittenden). 
395  pp.  The  Robert  Clarke  Co.  Illustrated. 

Rivers  of  North  America  (Russell).  Putnam.  320  pp. 

Appleton's  Guide  to  Mexico.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  211 

North  America  (Lyde).  Adam  and  Charles  Black. 
Treated  from  an  English  standpoint.  113  pp. 

Appleton's  Canadian  Guide-book. 

Glaciers  of  North  America  (Russell).  Ginn  & 
Co. 

Stoddard's  Lectures,  Vol.  X.  Full,  illustrated  de- 
scriptions of  the  Grand  Canyon,  Yellowstone  Park, 
and  California.  Balch  Brothers  Co. 

North  America,  2  vols.  Stanford's  Compendium 
of  Geography  (Chisholm).  For  library  reference. 

The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants  (Reclus).  Nineteen 
large  volumes.  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

SEVENTH  GRADE 

1.  Text-books  for  pupils  and  teachers. 
Tarr  and  McMurry  Geography,  Third  Book. 
Europe    and    the    Other   Continents.     The   chief 

topics  are  selected  for  extended  treatment. 
Other  standard  geographies. 

2.  Readings  and  references  for  children. 
Northern  Europe.    122  pp.    Ginn  &  Co.   Illustrated. 

Easy  reading  matter,  adapted  also  to  younger  pupils. 

Europe  (Carpenter).  American  Book  Co.  452 
pp.  Valuable  and  interesting. 

Boyhood  in  Norway  (Boynton).     Scribners. 

Modern  Europe  (Badlam).     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Man-of-war  Life  (Nordhoff).     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Under  Sunny  Skies.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Sketches  from  the  Youth's  Companion.   Number  2. 


212  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Glimpses  of  Europe.     Perry  Mason  &  Co. 

Personally  Conducted  (Stockton).     Scribners. 

King's  Geographical  Readers,  Sixth  Book. 

Northern  Europe.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Holland  and  the  Hollanders  (Meldrum).  Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.  405  pp.  Well  illustrated. 

Footprints  of  Travel  (Ballou).  Ginn  &  Co.  472 
pp.  Partly  devoted  to  Europe. 

Madam  How  and  Lady  Why  (Kingsley).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  Instructive  reading. 

Geography  of  the  British  Isles  (Geike).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  127  pp. 

Europe  (E.  A.  Freeman).     The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Merchant  Vessel  (Nordhoff).  Dodd,  Mead  & 
Co. 

A  Geographical  Reader  (Rupert).   Sibley  &  Ducker. 

Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat  (W.  C.  Edgar).  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.  An  excellent  study  of  wheat  regions. 

Stoddard's  Lectures,  Vols.  I,  V,  VI,  and  IX. 
Large  books  suitable  for  reference  library. 

Sea  and  Land  (Shaler).  Good  reference  book 
for  pupils  and  teachers. 

Boy  Travellers  (Knox).  Large  volumes,  well 
illustrated.  Harpers.  Europe,  Great  Britain,  and 
Russia. 

Men  of  Invention  and  Industry  (Smiles).     Harpers. 

3.  Additional  references  for  teachers.  Compara- 
tive geography  (Ritter).  American  Book  Co.  A 
valuable  pedagogical  treatise. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  213 

A  Geography  of  Europe  (Lyde).  Adam  and 
Charles  Black.  1 16  pp. 

Baedeker's  Guide-books  of  Europe.  Great  Britain, 
etc.  Karl  Baedeker,  publisher,  Leipzig. 

The  Scenery  of  Scotland  (Geike).  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

The  Mediterranean  Trip  (Brooks).  Scribners. 
2iopp.  Well  illustrated. 

Roundabout  Journeys  (C.  D.  Warner).  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  European  descriptions. 

History  of  Commerce  in  Europe  (Gibbins).  228 
pp.  The  Macmillan  Co. 

General    Geography  (Mill).     The   Macmillan   Co. 

Man  and  his  Markets  (Lyde).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
1 68  pp. 

From  Ponkapog  to  Pesth  (T.  B.  Aldrich). 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  Sketches  of  European 
travel.  360  pp. 

A  Satchel  Guide  to  Europe.  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&Co. 

Commercial  Geography  of  the  British  Empire 
(Lyde).  Methuen  &  Co. 

The  Golden  Gates  of  Trade  (Yeats).  George 
Philip  &  Son. 

The  Scenery  of  Switzerland  (Lubbock).  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Our  Cycling  Tour  in  England  (Thwaites).  A.  C. 
McClurg. 

The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants  (Reclus).    Appleton. 


214  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

1.  Text-books  for  use  of  teachers  and  pupils. 
Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geographies.    Third  Book,  on 

Europe  and  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  Macmillan 
Co.  The  full  treatment  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  South 
America,  and  of  the  large  topics  of  physiography. 
The  comparisons  of  these  later  topics  with  those  pre- 
viously studied  in  Europe  and  North  America  will 
bring  a  complete  review  of  the  whole  of  geography. 
Other  standard  geographies. 

2.  Supplementary  readings  for  pupils. 

Asia  (Carpenter).  American  Book  Co.  A  very 
interesting  and  instructive  geographical  reader. 

Selections  from  the  Youth's  Companion.   Number  4. 

Sketches  of  the  Orient.     Perry  Mason  &  Co. 

South  America  (Carpenter).     American  Book  Co. 

The  South  American  Republics  (Markwick).  Sil- 
ver, Burdett  &  Co. 

Life  in  Asia  (Smith).     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Views  in  Africa  (Badlam).     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea  (Kellogg). 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Footprints  of  Travel  (Ballou).     Ginn  &  Co. 

A  Geographical  Reader  (Rupert).  Sibley  & 
Ducker. 

Stoddard's  Lectures,  Vols.  Ill  and  IV.  Balch 
Brothers  &  Co.  Large,  well-illustrated  volumes  for 
library  and  for  reference. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  21$ 

Wild  Life  under  the  Equator(Du  Chaillu).    Harpers. 

Boy  Travellers  (Knox).  Volumes  on  Japan  and 
China,  Ceylon,  Africa,  the  Congo,  Australasia,  Egypt, 
and  South  America.  Large,  illustrated  volumes. 

Travels  and  Essays  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
Scribners.  428  pp. 

Around  the  World  in  the  Yacht  Sunbeam  (Bras- 
sey).  Henry  Holt  &  Co.  470  pp. 

In  Darkest  Africa.     2  vols.  (Stanley).     Scribners. 

The  Story  of  Japan  (Van  Bergen).  American  Book 
Co.  Historical  and  descriptive. 

Story  of  China  (Van  Bergen).  American  Book  Co. 
Descriptive  and  partly  historical.  These  two  books 
are  small  schoolbooks  suitable  for  children. 

3.    Additional  references  for  teachers. 

Java,  the  Pearl  of  the  East  (Higginson).  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

First  Book  of  Physical  Geography  (Tarr).  362  pp. 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

International  Geography  (Mill).  Appleton.  A 
book  for  libraries  and  reference.  1052  pp. 

Elementary  Lessons  in  Physical  Geography 
(Tarr).  The  Macmillan  Co. 

Sea  and  Land  (Shaler).     Scribners. 

Aspects  of  the  Earth  (Shaler).     Scribners. 

The  Relations  of  Geography  and  History  (H.  B. 
George).  The  Clarendon  Press.  Oxford. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Commerce  (Clow). 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 


2l6  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Industrial  Rivers  of  the  United  Kingdom.  T.  Fisher 
Unwin. 

The  Commerce  of  Nations  (Bastable).  Methuen 
&  Co.  Partly  historical. 

Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography,  Asia,  2  vols. 
(Keane).  Edward  Stanford. 

The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants  (Reclus).  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.  For  library. 

The  Forms  of  Water  (Tyndall).  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

The  Realm  of  Nature  (Mill).     Scribners. 

The  Earth,  i  vol.  (Reclus).     Harpers. 

The  Earth  as  modified  by  Human  Action  (Marsh). 
Scribners. 

Explorers  and  Travellers  (Greely).     Scribners. 

Man  and  the  Glacial  Period  (Wright).  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

The  New  Basis  of  Geography  (Redway).  The  Mac- 
millan  Co. 

Nature  and  Man  in  North  America  (Shaler). 
Scribners. 

How  to  study  and  teach  Geography  (Parker). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Comparative  Geography  (Ritter).  American  Book 
Co. 

Longman's  New  School  Atlas.  Longmans,  Green 
&Co. 

Atlas  of  Commercial  Geography.  Cambridge 
University  Press. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  21? 

MAPS 

New  Physical  Maps.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Johnston  Wall  Maps.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Normal  Relief  Maps.     Eaton  &  Co.     Chicago. 

Flexible  Blackboard  Maps.  Dann  &  Co.  Chicago. 
Outlines  to  be  filled  out  with  crayon. 

Outline  Maps.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Progressive  Outline  Maps.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

New  Century  Development  Maps.  The  Morse 
Company. 

McKinley  Geography  and  History  Outline  Maps. 
The  McKinley  Publishing  Company. 

United  States  Geological  Survey.  Land  and  Water 
Map. 

The  Use  of  Government  Maps  in  Schools.  A 
pamphlet  published  by  Henry  Holt  &  Co.  Useful 
to  those  wishing  to  secure  and  use  government  maps. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


METHODS  IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

A  Series  of  Educational  Books  in  Two  Groups  covering  the  General 

Principles  of  Method  and  Its  Special  Applications  to  tha 

Common  School 

BY 

CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  PhD. 

Morthern.  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  DeKalb,  Ittintu 

WITH 
F.  M.  McMURRY 

AS  JOINT  AUTHOR  FOR  METHOD  OF  RECITATION 

L  BOOKS  OP  GENERAL  METHOD  IN   EDUCATION 

The  three  books  in  this  group  deal  with  the  fundamental,  con- 
prehensive  principles  of  Education  for  the  school  as  a  whole, 
and  include  both  instruction  and  management. 

D,  BOOKS  OF  SPECIAL  METHOD    IN    COMMON    SCHOOL 

STUDIES.  Each  school  study  is  treated  in  a  separate  book, 
and  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  material,  and  the  method 
of  instruction  appropriate  to  that  study  throughout  its  course, 
are  fully  discussed.  Illustrative  lessons  and  extensive  lists  of 
books  of  special  value  as  helps  to  teachers  and  schools  are 
included. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE.  NEW  YORK 

BOSTON  CHICAGO  ATLANTA         SAN  FRANCISCO 

TOO  Boylston  St.    378-38*  Wabash  A^e.    Empire  Build 'sr   310-**-!  Sansome  St 

I 


GENERAL  METHOD  IN  EDUCATION 
THE   ELEMENTS  OF  GENERAL  METHOD 

BASED  ON  THE  IDEAS  OF  HERBART 
By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.       Cloth.    12mo.    331  pp 
90  cents          postage  1O  cents 

This  volume  discusses  fully  the  controlling  principles  of  our  progres- 
sive modern  education,  such  as  The  Aim  of  Education ;  The  Materials 
and  Sources  of  Moral  Training ;  The  Relative  Value  of  Studies  in  the 
School  Course ;  The  Nature  and  Value  of  Interest  as  a  Vital  Element 
in  Instruction  ;  The  Correlation  of  Studies  ;  Inductive  and  Deductive 
Processes  as  Fundamental  to  All  Thinking ;  Apperception,  its  Close 
and  Constant  Application  to  the  Process  of  Learning ;  The  Will,  its 
Training  and  Function  and  its  Close  Relation  to  Other  Forms  of 
Mental  Action. 

The  book  closes  with  an  account  of  Herbart  and  his  disciples  in 
Germany,  and  a  summary  of  their  pronounced  ideas  and  influence 
upon  education. 

THE  METHOD  OF  THE   RECITATION 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY  and  FRANK  M.  McMURRY 

Cloth.    12mo.    339  pp.  9O  cents  postage  1O  cents 

This  book,  as  a  whole,  is  designed  to  simplify,  organize,  and  illustrate 
the  chief  principles  of  class-room  method  in  elementary  schools.  A  few 
important  fundamental  principles  are  carefully  worked  out  as  a  basis. 
The  essential  steps,  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  in  all  studies,  are 
worked  out  and  applied  to  different  branches.  The  developing  method 
of  instruction  so  much  used  in  the  oral  treatment  of  lessons  is  worked 
out,  and  the  method  of  careful  and  suitable  questioning  discussed. 

Two  chapters  are  given,  consisting  of  Illustrative  Lessons  selected 
from  the  different  studies  and  worked  out  in  full,  as  examples  of  a  right 
method.  In  these  examples,  and  also  in  the  discussions,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  apperception,  interest,  induction,  and  deduc- 
tion to  class-room  work  are  shown.  The  peculiar  application  of  these 
various  principles  to  different  studies  is  carefully  discussed. 


SCHOOL  AND  CLASS  MANAGEMENT— In  Preparation 

at 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  COMMON  SCHOOL  STUDIES 

SPECIAL  nETHOD   IN  THE   READING  OF  COM- 
PLETE  ENGLISH    CLASSICS    IN  THE 
COMMON   SCHOOLS 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 
Cloth.    12mo.    254  pp.    75  cents,  postage  9  cents 

This  discusses  in  a  comprehensive  way  the  regular  reading  lessons, 
the  choice  of  stories,  poems,  and  longer  masterpieces,  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  various  grades  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  school  year 
inclusive  ;  the  value  for  school  use  of  the  best  literature,  including 
complete  masterpieces,  both  long  and  short ;  method  in  reading ;  and 
principles  of  class-room  work.  A  descriptive  list  of  more  than  four 
hundred  books  forms  the  last  chapter.  The  list  has  been  carefully 
made,  and  is  designed  to  assist  teachers  and  superintendents  in  select- 
ing suitable  reading  material  for  the  successive  grades. 


SPECIAL  nETHOD  IN  PRIflARY  READING  AND 
ORAL  WORK   IN   STORY  TELLING 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 
Cloth.     12mo.     75  cents  postage  8  cents 

The  relation  of  oral  story  work  to  early  exercises  in  primary  reading 
is  explained  at  length.  A  full  discussion  of  oral  methods  in  primary 
grades  and  a  detailed  account  of  primary  exercises  in  reading  are  given. 
The  use  of  games  for  incidental  reading  is  also  fully  discussed  and 
illustrated.  

SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 
NEW  EDITION  IN  PREPARATION 

This  book  contains  a  course  of  study  in  history  with  a  full  discus- 
sion of  methods  of  treating  topics.  The  value,  selection,  and  arrange- 
ment of  historical  materials  for  each  grade  are  discussed,  and  illustrative 
lessons  given.  The  relation  of  history  to  geography,  literature,  and 
other  studies  is  treated,  and  lists  of  books  suitable  for  each  year  are 
supplied. 

3 


SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 

NEW  EDITION  IN   PREPARATION 

The  entire  course  of  study  is  laid  out  after  a  careful  selection  «i 
topics.  Methods  of  class  instruction  are  fully  discussed,  and  illustra- 
tions are  given  of  geograpical  topics  treated  in  detail.  The  close 
relation  of  geography  to  other  studies  is  shown,  and  the  best  lists  of 
books  supplied. 


SPECIAL  flETHOD   IN   NATURAL  SCIENCE 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 

NEW  EDITION  IN  PREPARATION 

The  history  of  science  teaching  in  elementary  schools  is  given.  The 
basis  for  selecting  the  topics  for  a  course  of  study,  and  the  method  of 
class  instruction  suitable  to  object  study,  experimentation,  etc.,  are  fully 
discussed.  The  book  contains,  also,  a  carefully  selected  list  of  the 
best  books  for  the  use  of  teachers  and  pupils. 


A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  THE  EIGHT  GRADES 
OF  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 


IN  PREPARATION 


THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 

BOSTON  CHICAGO  ATLANTA          SAN  FRANCISCO 

too  Boylston  St    "78-388  Wabash  Are.    Empire  Build 'g    319-335  Sansome  St 

4 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


SUBJECT  TO  FINE 


SEP  3  0  1961 
JAN  1  5  1962 


MAY  &  0 

*»  < 


RECEIVED 

1  3  b8  -2  PM 
tD/PSYCH  LIB. 


--"-,—  rriy. 

JUL  20  1966 


PSYCH. 


QLAPR 


Form  L9-32m-8,'57(.C8680s4)444 


UCLA-ED/PSYCH  Library 

G  73  M22sp 


Education 

Library 

G 

73 

M22sp 


L  005  618  826  1 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY    ACILir 


A    001  130091 


